According To Criminal Justice Today Essay

â€Å"Modern sentencing practices are influenced by five goals, which weave their way through widely disseminated professional and legal models, continuing public calls for sentencing reform.† The five goals of contemporary sentencing are Retribution, Incapacitation, Deterrence, Rehabilitation and Restoration. We are going to discuss what each goal means for sentencing criminals. Retribution a demand for punishment based on a need for vengeance. This is the earliest known rationale for punishment. Early cultures would punish almost every offender almost immediately and without a hearing. Severe penalties like death and exile where common forms of punishment even for minor offenses in early societies. The term just deserts means the offenders sentencing holds that the offenders deserve the punishment they receive at the hands of the law and the punishment should be appropriate with the type of crime. Incapacitation is the second goal of criminal sentencing and seeks to protect the innocent members of society from offenders who might harm them. Unlike retribution, incapacitation requires only restraint and not punishment like sending the offender to a correctional institution without imprisonment. The third example is deterrence. When you think of deterrence, it uses the example or threat of punishment that will convince people that committing crimes is not worth the penalty. Rehabilitation is the fourth example and brings about fundamental changes in offenders and their overall behavior. The ultimate goal of rehabilitation is to reduce the overall number of criminal offenses. Rehabilitation means to return a person to their previous condition. The final example is restoration. Restoration is a sentencing goal that seeks to address what damage was called by the offender that will make those who suffered whole again. This can range from victim’s assistance and/or supporting the victims with some form of compensations.

Personal Plan: Reflection Essay

I was shocked at how closely my career interests and my results were matched. Previous to these career building plans we have been doing, I was almost entirely sure I had chosen the right degree to pursue. Now after doing these activities, they have helped solidify that my career choice is definitely appropriate for me, and it aligns with my skills and strengths as well. For instance; researching, is my second largest strength. I already knew that I loved to investigate and dig deeper into things, particularly human behaviors. Therefore, Psychology is the perfect major for me because it is aligned directly with my skills, strengths, and interests. I had never really put much thought into my strengths before, per-say. When I would consider strengths and competencies I would mostly think about general skills, like reading or math. I never considered such things as; adaptability or innovation, to be a skill. Now that this activity has put my certain strength into perspective, I think my results match up really well with my competency skills. I knew already that I was good at taking initiative and investigating situations but, it did surprise me however, to find out I did fairly well at adapting to change. I do not personally think I am fabulous at this particular skill, so having a visual aid to help add depth and meaning to each of my own personal strengths and competencies is wonderful. SMART goals are a very efficient way for me to break down my long-term goals into shorter, more specific and measurable ones. Using SMART goals as a part of my personal plan helps me set milestones to see what needs to be achieved; by what time, and in which order, so I can reach my ultimate goal. They have taught me how to use a rewards system for achieving my goals. This way, I am training myself to; work now and play later, so to speak. Exploring in depth what each of my competencies truly means, trying to recognize, and practice them to the best of my ability will help build on the skills I already have. For example: organization is one of my personal strengths, so when I catch myself in a situation where I am applying this skill, I will now try and recognize and build on it. Asking friends and family to point out certain strengths and weaknesses will also help me build on each skill because I will have, at that point, be made conscious to the fact that I am utilizing a certain strength. From there I can apply different strategies as to build on each skill, or lack thereof, and improve each one. I think it is important to focus on both your strengths and weaknesses. If you solely focus on your strengths, then you are not building on, or learning any new competencies. If you focus only on your weaknesses, it might start to have a negative effect on you and any progress you might be trying to make. I will personally be putting more effort into building up the competencies that I am currently weaker in than others. I clearly know now, what my ultimate strengths are and I can see where I have the ability to do some things more efficiently than others. So I feel it is important for me to work on both my strengths and weaknesses, just to pay extra attention to the things I am not fabulous at, and build on them. As well as recognize my strengths and how to exercise them to my fullest potential or ability.

Work-life-balance theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Work-life-balance theory - Essay Example The disparities lead to the false perception of inferiority complex aspect, which is associated with the female gender (Isabella, 2006, 73). This issue complicates the issue of cooperation and coordination within an organization setting. This is because when the issue of gender disparity incorporates with other underlying issues within an organization, an organization is negatively affected. Therefore, the aspect of achievement and leisure within an organization is essential in the attainment of a work-life-balance even in the engendered organizations.  Gendered organization employees experience some work imbalance issues (Billing, 2009). The gendered organizations support a better environment, which boosts the motivation of the environment of the employees. Consequently, workers attain a work-life-balance in organizations. The move improves the worker retention because the work force gets satisfied with the conditions prevailing in the organizations. The introduction of flex times is a measure the gendered organization uses to achieve a work-life balance in the organizational setting. The flextime gives the employees time for leisure and recreation. In this regard, the employees steam off and rejuvenate their energy in readiness for dispensation of their unique roles within an organization. According to Chick (2009), part-time work is also another measure used by gendered organizations to achieve work-life balance. The provision of the part time work creates an opportunity for the industrious workers.

Research Methodology Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Methodology - Research Paper Example Introduction Violence in the schools is recognized to be one of the major issues in terms of social malpractice. Violence in the schools not only affects students in the processes of their learning and well-being but also has a long-term impact on their later life as well as achievements. Violence in the schools unfavorably affects the behavior of the victim students. There are various ways through which violence can be committed in schools. The most commonly identified school violence acts include bullying, gang violence, assault and slapping among others (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). The violent acts in schools may lead to homicide incidents and injuries which undesirably tend to influence the psychological as well as physical health of victim students. In this regard, certain procedures or methods should be adopted with the intention of mitigating the issue of violence in the schools. There are various research methodologies or approaches which can be used to recognize violent acts executed in schools and determine procedures on the basis of which these uncalled-for acts can be mitigated or prevented. The research methodologies or approaches which can be adopted in this proposed research study will assist in identifying violence in the schools and devising appropriate measures to eliminate or lessen these issues. There are various types of research approaches which include qualitative research method, quantitative research method, inductive approach and deductive approach. Moreover, these research approaches aid in drawing findings on the basis of the analysis of collected data. Data can be collected through two procedures which entail primary as well as secondary data collection methods (University of Bradford, 2012). Prevailing Preventive Measures in Place A number of school authorities have formulated various forms of prevention plans and procedures with the intention of averting or minimizing school violence. The various prevention plans which are formulated and implemented by schools are as follows: Developing Safe and Responsive School Climate Many authorities of schools have initiated and followed certain specific plans with the intention of offering better school climate for students. These schools have adopted classroom management and conflict resolution programs in order to mitigate violence. These programs have facilitated schools in providing better education and learning environment for students (Skiba, Boone, Fantanini, Wu, Strussell & Peterson, 1999). Early Identification and Early Intervention for Students At-Risk for Violence Administrators of schools and teachers should identify any possibilities related to violence at an early stage so that these issues can be mitigated promptly without any delay before the actual occurrence of violence. Upon the identification of any kind of alienated behaviors amid students, they should be offered with adequate mentoring as well as counseling supports in order to minimize or decrease their aggressive behavior. In this respect, the students are likely to develop a self-esteem and social manner (Skiba, Boone, Fantanini, Wu, Strussell & Peterson, 1999). Effective Responses to School Disruption or Crisis At the same time, many school authoritie

Which characterization fits best in Zeitoun Essay

Which characterization fits best in Zeitoun - Essay Example On the other hand, there are people who portrayed the heart of humanity and care to both people and animals. Zeitoun is one of those who show endless desire to see that people’s lives are safe and those of animals (Arias et al.). Together with Todd, they ensure they navigate the area helping those in need. Zietoun having distanced himself from his family depicts a sense of care for lives and hard work to ensure the property they had acquired is safe while also making trips around New Orleans helping those trapped with no help. The book, which is non-fictional, and depicts all forms of characters ranging from those who cared for others, regarded as heroes and those whose interest was to take advantage of the situation and loot other people’s properties. Taking advantage of disaster is inhuman and portrays rottenness in a society. Those who engage restlessly in saving other people’s lives represent the few good in the society. During the incident, soldiers get to the city sent to evacuate those trapped during the incident, but some of them engaging in looting contrary to the reason that took them there (Robbie). It depicts the greed among people who care not for others. For example, as Zeitoun paddled across as street to feed the deserted dogs, he sees several armed people looting a Shell gas station but he decides to keep a distance (Arias et al.). The incident reflects two faces of humanity those busy harvesting where they did not sow and those who cares for humankind rolling around the city salvaging whatever he finds. When Kathy leaves Baton Rouge after being unable to stay with the family on worries that her husband may be unsafe, she decides to get to Yuko. In the process worrying of the lawlessness in New Orleans, she calls Claiborne house before the agreed time, she fails to get Zeitoun but speaks to a man with American accent. The issue worries her a lot and suggests that probably Zeitounhad been

Database Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Database Security - Research Paper Example The DBMSs provide an interface that that enables users to interact with the database itself, other applications for capturing and analyzing data (Oppel, 2004). Database security is concerned with aspects aimed at protecting the contents of the database, users and owners. The protection ranges from system protection against software and hardware malfunction to intentional and unauthorized use of the database and unintentional access by entities not authorized. Databases may be exposed to threats in the form of loss of integrity, confidentiality, authenticity and availability. Most large databases face security challenges related to survivability, intellectual property rights and data quality. According to a report by the American firm Verizon, databases are at the core of any organization as they store confidential data and customer records, yet they are the most breached business assets (Kroenke & Auer, 2007). Data must be available at every necessary time, and it must only be available to appropriately authorized users (Elmasri & Navathe, 2010). It is also of critical importance to track users who access data and the data they access. Data authenticity ensures that data is edited by authorized sources and confirms that users accessing it are actually who they claim to be. Authenticity also verifies that outbound data is being delivered to the expected recipient. Through data integrity, external data is verified as having the correct format and the necessary metadata. Data integrity is also concerned with the accuracy and verifiability of input data as well as ensuring that data follows the correct rules of workflow for the organization (Kroenke & Auer, 2007). All changes to data and their authors must be reported as a compliance requirement for data integrity. Through data confidentiality, it is ensured that only correctly authorized users have access to confidential data. This ensures t hat the entire database is

Operating System Concepts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Operating System Concepts - Assignment Example 2. Methods and Object Synchronization (mutual exclusion): One process should be able to use only one resource at a time. The request by another process should be delayed until the resource has been released. 3. Deadlock prevention: Deadlock can be prevented by using different schemes or by avoiding the necessary conditions (mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption and circular wait (Stalling, 274)) which hold true for it. The different schemes are: 2. (20 points) Given that the first three necessary conditions for a deadlock are in place, provide detailed comments on the feasibility of the following strategy and the potential outcomes based upon its application. All processes are given unique priorities. When more than one process is waiting for a resource and the resource becomes available, allocate the resource to the waiting process with the highest priority. Now, in the given scenario all processes have their unique priority. Let us assume there are two resources R1 and R2 and process P1 has higher property than P2. Consider P1 holds R1 and P2 holds R2 and P2 is requesting for R1. Now, if P1 requests for R2 it will not get the resource even if it has the higher priority, because resources are not preemptive. So deadlock is still possible in this condition. There exists one CPU in this system, which may run one program at a time. Should information be allowed to move from any level to any level or should transfers only occur from adjacent levels? Explain in detail.

ASSESSMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ASSESSMENT - Essay Example There are, for instance, societies that practice circumcision of males as a way of graduating them into adulthood. On the other hand, there are communities that do not have that kind of practice. When these two categories of people belong in the same team at the workplace and there happens to be acrimony between them, the circumcised person would most likely use unwelcome words on the uncircumcised one to suggest that they are not man enough because they are not circumcised. Cultural clashes can be real horrible experiences at the workplace (Parker, 2013). Supervisors at work have over the years abused the employees working under them only because the employees do not subscribe to their way of thinking. One thing that leads to differences in thinking are the cultural indoctrinations where one believes that everybody else should believe in the things that they believe in (Parker, 2014). A supervisor will tend to frustrate workers that view things differently. They could end up recommending them for sack or demotion and give vague reasons for that while deep inside, they know that the hate they have for such individuals emanates from differences in culture and, in some cases, religion. Those are very common scenarios. Managers of cross-cultural teams always have a lot to do in terms of creating cohesion among employees drawn from sundry cultural backgrounds. The most important thing for such managers is to try as much as they can to inculcate workplace values and ethics that will ensure that cultural diversity is not a source of conflic t and disrespect. Ethno-cultural conflict within the international classroom is a topic that requires a lot of research. There is bound to be fierce conflicts in a class containing people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Teachers and school heads have the duty to ensure that such conflicts do not hamper the learning process and try as much as

Case Analysis on Ryan Air Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Analysis on Ryan Air - Case Study Example Thus, in 2004, the company's short-term market orientation involved segmenting by lifestyle and by income bracket in the European marketplace in order to appeal to a broader target consumer audience. The key stakeholders in the firm include all staff members responsible for carrying out strategic objectives, the communities in which Ryanair thrives, as well as the customers who frequent Ryanair as their low-cost carrier of choice. Satisfying the stakeholder appears to be the firm's long-term mission in Europe in lieu of having no established, formalised mission or vision statement. Lack of such a mission or vision may be involved in the rationale for why Ryanair experienced sales declines in 2004, however this will be discussed in further detail in this case analysis report. This report will highlight factors in both the internal and external business environment which are plaguing Ryanair in terms of maintaining a strategic orientation that is completely congruent with sales goals and growth initiatives. A micro- and macro-level analysis of the firm in 2004 is proposed in this report. PEST analysis is an acronym for political, economic, social an... Each of the aforementioned forces are categorised by a particular macro-level external influence, each of which directly impacts strategic direction at Ryanair. The external political environment is one of significant advantage to Ryanair, as the majority of its operations are contained within Europe. It is relatively common knowledge that this region maintains political stability, thus Ryanair does not experience issues with governmental instability in Europe as a concern regarding passenger volumes or flight destinations. However, outside of the European marketplace, the firm maintains significant economic difficulties posed by political forces such as OPEC, the organisation responsible for oil production in the Middle East. As the majority of international revenues in the Mid-East regions stem from oil and oil production/distribution, the current methodology of global supply chain (in relation to where oil is delivered based on price and overall demand) incurs large-scale costs to Ryanair who, like other business entities, is unable to secure low-cost fuel due to political forces which drive oil distribution. This assessment of the external political environment is well-supported by Ryanair documentation highlighting 2004 as a year of challenges stemming largely from the cost of oil which continued to escalate in this particular period (Annual Report, 2004). The economic environment in which Ryanair thrives in 2004 is relatively stable in terms of maintaining operations successfully and contributing to the financial well-being of European nations in the process. The European Union, consisting of a large quantity of developed countries in Europe, maintains a high value for its integrated currencies, suggesting that this region is

English Class Writing Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

English Class Writing Assignment - Essay Example Their chance came when Carl was recruited to work in the U.S. Navy with both the father and son expecting too much from this break, not knowing he will just be helping in the kitchen, giving him the mocking of his own color. While on break on the deck, Carl and his co-workers were watching the divers do their exercises and being lured by the waters; the young man readied himself to dive, against the will of his companions and the white Americans. When an attempt was made to make him get out of the water, he swam towards the middle of the sea with skill that impressed the trainer. He was then promoted as a diver, allowing him to see the dangers of his job. When an accident happened that called for an immediate rescue, Carl witnessed Billy Sunday, played by Robert DeNiro, do the rescue without any diving gear to protect him in the water, with all passion and fervor to his duties, dived against his commander’s will. This event led to a sickness that prevented him from continuing with his responsibilities, thus, was appointed to training master divers. Carl boldly went to the trainer who promoted him and expressed his wishes to become what he wanted, a master diver. The trainer laughed at this idea because black men are not allowed to be in the U.S.

The Disaster Management in India Has Become an Issue of Ridicule Essay Example for Free

The Disaster Management in India Has Become an Issue of Ridicule Essay With being the world’s second most populous country, India faces a lot of challenges in tackling the disasters that might strike her. India was expected to have learnt from the mistakes in her past. But the case isn’t so. Till date the Disaster Management of India is not as effective as it should have been for a huge country like India. All these ineffectiveness in technology has made Disaster Management in India an issue of ridicule. Earlier in the late 20th century due to lack of technology various disasters couldn’t be predicted in time, thus the people who were affected didn’t get any information about the disaster till they were struck by it. We can see the examples of floods across various states in India the cyclones in Odisha. Had been there any modern weather forecasting and prediction systems, the people would have got knowledge about the cyclones and effective plans could have been placed for minimising the effect of disaster. But even till the date the country hasn’t progressed. The lack of technology has led the country being unable to predict the heavy rains that caused the floods and landslides in Uttarakhand. Even because of lack of trust on the weathermen because of the past failures in forecasting by weathermen the state administration didn’t issue any warnings to people about the rains. Technology also consists of latest machinery and cutting edge tools which India doesn’t pose. The govt. said in it’s budget about assigning 100 thousand crores for disaster management and mitigation purpose. This amount might seem to be very large but it is very small if we consider the whole country which has about 1.6 billion citizens living in it. Even the amount used for disaster management would be quite less because of the politics and corruption. So one can easily imagine what would be the impact when a disaster strikes India. Now even NDMA has no strategies for disaster management. After the rains and the series of cloud bursts in Uttarakha nd, the Uttarakhand govt. declared that its state disaster management team didn’t have plan how to execute the rescue operation .If this is the case then there is no use of NDMA which said that it was not prepared to handle such huge disaster. Now back to technology. At the same time when India was busy in recovery of Uttarakhand, a similar disaster struck some European countries. But there the impact of disaster was quite less because of better planning efficient disaster management. The damage due to the floods cloud bursts in those countries was very less. This show  the ineffectiveness of India in tackling disasters. Now let’s shift our focus to the relief rehabilitation in India. As compared to disaster management the relief rehabilitation is better but not at par with other countries. Let us take an example. In 2011 Japan was struck with severe earthquakes, tsunamis finally a nuclear crisis, but in Japan the relief and rehabilitation work was quite instant and the country came back to normal life within a month or so. Meanwhile, In India the series of floods cloud bursts have disturbed Uttarakhand and even till today after 2 months relief work is going on. Who should be blamed for this? Only and only our govt. should be blamed. Had the govt. had been prepared for tackling this issue , today Uttarakhand wouldn’t have such devastation. Even the hand of politics cannot be neglected in Disaster Relief rehabilitation. Parties often adopt str ategies which would benefit them in next elections. They only think of their future thus this leads to failure in disaster management. Had it been japan, life would have sprung back in a single week. With cities expanding and developing in an unplanned manner, there would be a great loss in case of a disaster striking such cities. For example unsafe building practices in rapidly growing urban settlements constitute one of India’s greatest challenges for disaster management. A major earthquake in any of India’s densely and heavily populated cities in seismic zones would be catastrophic in terms of fatalities. Government of India has also launched various policies the implementation of NDMA under the Disaster Management Act of 2005. The objective of the authority has been to lay down policies and guidelines for effective management, risk mitigation and prevention of disasters in the country. However, in Uttarakhand, people were caught unawares by the series of flash floods and landslides in the absence of any mitigation measure or early warning despite the state having a history of such disasters and the weathermen predicting about it. The post disaster relief response has been equally poor—more than 70,000 people are reported missing. NDMA was constituted under the Disaster Management Act of 2005 to draft policies and guidelines on disaster management, approve and coordinate the implementation of plans for disaster preparedness and manageme nt at the Central, state and ministerial levels. The authority is headed by the prime minister. However, in the past seven years, the authority has been ineffective in carrying out most of its functions. NDMA had initiated  projects for flood mitigation and landslide mitigation at the national level in 2008. However, those projects have either been abandoned midway or are being redesigned because of poor planning. The projects to prepare national vulnerability atlases of landslides, floods and earthquake are also incomplete. Experts feel if such projects would have been implemented properly the damage in Uttarakhand could have been much less. The CAG report also highlighted several other loopholes in the functioning of NDMA. It said none of the major projects taken up by NDMA was complete even after seven years of its functioning. The projects were either abandoned midway or were being redesigned because of initial poor planning. The major projects include producing vulnerability atlases for floods, earthquakes and landslides, national landslide risk mitigation project, national flood risk mitigation project and national disaster management information system. As per the CAG report, NDMA has also not been performing several functions as prescribed in the Disaster Management Act. These include recommending provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation and recommending relief in repayment of loans or for grant of fresh loans. Besides, several critical posts in NDMA are vacant and consultants were used for day to day working. One can then easily say what would happen if India is struck by a major disaster. In layman’s language one can say that all these things have one message in common – THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT OF INDIA HAS BECOME AN ISSUE OF RIDICULE. The time has come for the citizens to take action in their hands and perform their duties . If not now it’s never and in future India’s disaster management will always remain an issue of ridicule among the people of he world because of it’s inability to tackle issues perform necessary actions.

E-marketing strategies for Nestle

E-marketing strategies for Nestle Consumers buying behaviour and want often changed rapidly as the trend of the market and the current fad had worked closely with the advancement of technology. Marketing has also moved to helping the buyer to buy rather than the traditional way of advertising that more towards to helping seller to sell which lead to companies to use the Internet as the effective tool to provide the customer with information and gained their buying decision whilst develop a lasting relationship. (Charlesworth, 2009). There are numerous of companies set up their business online, as a result, each business owner has to come out with new and appropriate e-marketing strategies in order for their company to be one step further or stay competitive with its rivals. As in the food manufacturer industry, Nestlà © (M) Bhd. had growth and made expansion throughout Malaysian which became the trusted names in every household from generation to generation. As to move along with the current fab, Nestlà © (M) Bhd a lso breaking its traditional ways of advertising and penetrate into the Internet world in order to stay on top of the summit of food manufacturer leader in the country and increase the company Return on Investment. 2.0 Introduction E-business has become in vogue because of it benefits such as cost effective, enable better customer relationship, gaining competitive advantage and etc. By making the appropriate and critical use of e-marketing strategies and practices through Internet, companies can achieve their objectives and sustain competitive advantage over its rivals. As for this report, Nestlà © (M) Bhd. will be chosen as the case study. Nestlà © Malaysia is the food manufacturer which manufactures its products in 7 factories and operates from its head office in Mutiara Damansara, and 6 other offices in Malaysia. Nestlà © Malaysia manufactures more than 300 Halal products with the brand name such as MILO, NESCAFÉ, MAGGI, NESPRAY, KIT KAT and etc. (See Appendix 1 for Nestlà © Malaysias history) In this business report, it illustrates e-marketing strategies of Nestlà © (M) Bhd. that can be adopted to achieve the objective of the company, which are likely to produce the best of Return on Investment (ROI). In order to achieve this objective, Nestlà © (M) Bhd. can: Build and market Nestlà © Brand via internet Advertise and attract more online users to Nestlà ©s website Improve online sales and boost business profit Develop and build relationship with customer base The e-marketing strategies recommended to Nestlà © (M) Bhd. to implement to achieve the company Return of Investment (ROI) as mentioned above are website development, viral marketing, affiliate marketing, search engine optimization (SEO), domain name, online advertising and email marketing. 3.0 E-marketing Strategies Nestlà © Malaysia can be Adopted to Achieve the best of Return on Investment (ROI) 3.1 Website Development To achieve the objective of Nestlà © Malaysia to produce the best of Return on Investment (ROI), developing and designing a good website is the most important and initial stage in the e-marketing strategies. Based on the Internet World Stats (Figure 1), Asia has the highest percentage of Internet users in the world; this shows that Asia is an Internet-mature country among the world and this indicates a potential online market whereby Internet is currently a fad tool for them to look for information, therefore, a quality website design is a key to attract more online users to Nestlà © Malaysias website. 3.1.1 Presentation Based on Dr. Wilson (2003), the splash pages which is the home pages with dancing logos powered by Macromedia Flash technology designed to annoy and turn away visitors before they reach the real home page. Charlesworth, (2009) states that a website should be designed for its target readership and is easy to find information. In the case of Nestlà © Malaysia, some of the webpage of it brands such as NESLAC, MAGGIE are designed with Flash type technologies. Nestlà © Malaysia can improve on this area because a web page is designed for key audience and sending messages around their needs and glossy graphic form the Flash will grabs attention and brand association from the audience. (Tobin, 2008). Nestlà © Malaysia also has to ensure that the entire site is consistent, with every page in the site is follow the same layout and structure. Besides, in terms of the subject of the page width, the site should be user printed friendly by setting the page width not more than the maximum width of 750 pixels to conveniences the visitors when they want to do print-out from the site. The site also should avoid using the large images especially on the front page as this will slower down the download time of the site and simply turn away the impatient web users. (Charlesworth, 2009). 3.1.2 Usability According to Charlesworth (2009), website usability is to aid visitor to achieve their objectives for visiting the site in the simplest as easiest way. Most of the Internet users are used to a certain user interface elements where they usually reluctant to learn or adapt new thing with just to use the website. Nestlà © Malaysia should design its sites with a clear categorization of its brands. In a case of a user would like to look for the information regarding Growing Up Milk, the site should easily link to the user, e.g. Brands > Milk > Growing Up Milk > NESPRAY. This is vital as a smooth visitors flow will definitely adding percentage of turning an Internet browser into e-shopper. As Nestlà © Malaysias website comes along with many pages with its myriad of product brands, the navigation of the site should be taking into account. This is because some of the users might not arrive on the front page when they enter the site, so there is a possible risk for this potential users might not aware of other content from the site. Nestlà © Malaysia should ensure that the in-site search facility they provided will offer a marketing message, i.e. search again, whenever there are no matching products for the users particular search. 3.1.3 Content According to Chen Barnes (2007), shoppers make purchase decisions based on the information provided by the sites. Besides, content is being recognized by the users where a successful Internet presence has always been about effectively delivery of the information of the visitors wants Content is king!. Nestlà © Malaysia should always -update the content of its site by providing the latest and useful information of the product for each of its brands. Nestlà © Malaysia also can give a description of ingredients used, dietary exchange per serving and allergen information such as eggs, milk, soy to steer clear of consequences of customers who are allergic to certain ingredients of each of its brand products. By adopting the web as a commercial medium, Nestlà © Malaysia can benefited in a way that it can deliver its products such as products promotion, newly launched products through a direct and information oriented manner to the web users. This can help Nestlà © Malaysia to lower their cost for postage, printing cost, television commercial cost that incur when using the traditional advertising. 3.2 Viral Marketing Viral marketing have the extremely powerful effect in the form of word-of-mouth advertising techniques which utilizes the popularity of online social networks, forums, email, blogs and other resources to deliver marketing message and hence bring exponential business growth. Nestlà © Malaysia can market and build its brands through these channels such as Facebook, MySpace, Tagged, Twitter. According to Figure 2, more than 30 billion pieces of content such as web links, news stories, blog posts, notes, photo albums, etc had been shared each month in Facebook. Nestlà © Malaysia can use Facebook to build the brand of its products as the company can target these number of users in Facebook to promote the brands. For instance, Jane a Facebook user who shared her newly experiences on the taste of Nestlà © new products, MAGGI ® TASTYLITEà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Atta Whole Wheat Instant Noodle by uploading pictures of her having the noodles will certainly draw the attention of her Facebook users friends to browse on the Nestlà ©s website. This can lead to the increase of sales of Nestlà © and helps Nestlà © to achieve the Return on Investment. Based on the graph above (Figure 3), the numbers of visitors to Twitter.com in May are exceeding 20 million. The users of Twitter often post their daily status on their account and many user of Twitter will follow their friends tweets. This can help Nestlà © if for instance, Alan a Twitter user who satisfy after experienced with Nestlà © products and posted the review on his Twitter account, this will more likely to let his friend who follow his tweet will make purchase of Nestlà ©s product if they have read positive comments from the tweet. 3.2.1 Criteria that requires for Successful Viral Campaign Nestlà © Malaysia has to ensure that the information on its site is: Easy to forward For instance, Nestlà © should making sure that its website enhance a good usability techniques that will make the receiver to pass the information of the sites on to others. The Nestlà © site can add in the email to a friend button on every product so the visitors can easily share the information with their friends. (Charlesworth, 2009) Right target audience Nestlà © Malaysia can provide more details information regarding the products so that the receiver will realize which message are suitable to forward to their friends. Take for example, the dairy products from Nestlà © Malaysia can be range from growing up milk to adult milk, therefore, Nestlà © should categorized its products accordingly so that the consumers will only forward the message to their friends in accordance to their needs. (Charlesworth, 2009) Message is placed where it can be seen Nestlà © Malaysia not only can target its products information message and ads on mailing list but it only can place them on an appropriate website, blog. For instance, Nestlà © Malaysia can place its product on the local famous food blog such as Criz Bon Appetite blog because there were many blog viewers who followed the blog and therefore they will also notice on Nestlà ©s ads. (Charlesworth, 2009) 3.3 Affiliate Marketing There were many types of affiliate marketing such as Pay-Per-Click (PPC), Pay-Per-Sale (PPS) advertising, loyalty websites, email lists and etc. Nestlà © Malaysia can use affiliate marketing as one of its marketing strategy to improve its sales while build up its brand and finally lead to produce the best of Return on Investment. For example, Nestlà © Malaysia can advertise its products in ClickBank.com where Nestlà © Malaysia itself become the vendor in ClickBank and wait for the affiliate marketers in ClickBank to promotes its products. Then, the marketers in ClickBank will promote the Nestlà © products on the Internet, if any buyers who click and browse on the marketers link, ClickBank will charge on Nestlà © in the share profits basis upon a successful purchase. This type of charging are knows as Pay-Per-Click (PPC). One of the advantages of Nestlà © through this strategy is that it will have a wider place to sell its products and the more websites that publish by the marketers will naturally provide more customers and create more sales. As through this strategy, it will help Nestlà © to build up the brand name of and at the same time increase sales volume and achieve time efficiency. 3.4 Search Engine Optimization (SEO) Search engine optimization is one of the very potent e-marketing approaches that can help Nestlà © Malaysia in achieving its objective of producing the best of Return on Investment by increase the traffic to its website. This can be done by enhancing the visibility and accessibility to Nestlà © Malaysia website from search engines such as Google, Yahoo!, Baidu and etc. According to the Jupiter Media Metrix, surveyed resulted that 47% of web users said that the most common way they find products or online stores is through search engines. The top 10 results to the search query get 78% more web traffic as compared to the subsequent listing. (Strauss, El-ansary, and Frost, 2003). 3.4.1 Comparison of daily traffic rank trend between Nestle Malaysia Berhad Unilever Malaysia from Jun-Aug10 of both Based on Figure 4 5, Nestle Malaysia ranked number 205,070 while Unilever Malaysia ranked number 1,199,354 in the world according to the alexa traffic rank. This indicates that Nestle Malaysia had a very low percentages visitors visit on their sites as compared to its competitor, Unilever Malaysia. The fraction of visits to the site referred by search engines for Nestle Malaysia is roughly 11% while approximately 45% for Unilever Malaysia. Unilever Malaysia is relatively popular among users in the city of Kuala Lumpur which ranked #14,163. Figure 6 illustrates that Google dominated the market share of search engine in Asia which is about 86.30 percent out of the total market share. In order to gain competitive advantage and to increase the website traffic, Nestlà © Malaysia should adopt search engine optimization strategy through the famous search engines Google. Besides, Ottos Cookies also can place their advertisement in Google AdSense so that online users will aware of Ottos Cookies website that appeared on the various websites of Google. This also can help Nestlà © Malaysia to gain more visitors to their websites. 3.4.2 Advantages of Search Engine Optimization (SEO) The advantage of search engine optimization is that it can deliver Nestlà © Malaysia website among the top ranked sites in the web. There will be a greater likelihood of internet users visiting Nestlà © Malaysia website if it is ranked on top of the first page as compared to the website ranked at third or latter page of search engines. Moreover, search engine optimization also aids Nestlà © Malaysia in promoting the brand on the related award Nestlà © Malaysia has won such as the Asian Marketing Effectiveness Awards (AMEA) 2007 from the NESCAFÉ Kick-Start category. This will definitely lead to the visitors decision and assist visitors to come up o purchasing Nestlà © Malaysia products. 3.5 Domain Name The domain name of the company is the fundamental when considering the website as the company brand. According to Murphy and Scharl (2007), an effective online presence is crucial to a brands internet success whereby a successful online presence came in place. This can be successful when customers can found the brand name when they type the brand name followed by the global or the country suffix in the search engines. By using the company trademark or its brand name can certainly helps consumers to quickly find the site and adds power to the brands. (Strauss, El-Ansary, and Frost, 2006). This is added-value to Nestlà © Malaysia which registered the domain name with the local country suffix as nestle.com.my. Besides, Nestlà © Malaysia also can create multiple domain names to cover variations of it products brand as well by using the top search engines- Google to promote its domain name. This can help Nestlà © Malaysia to promote its websites and attain more online users to its site. 3.6 Online Advertising Nestlà © Malaysia objective is to produce greater Return on Investment by creating brand awareness of the public through the medium of Internet. As for this, Nestlà © Malaysia can use the online advertising as it is the powerful tool to start and strengthen relationships with customers in brand promotion. Nestlà © Malaysia can place their advertisements of their various brand of product through the web. For instance, Nestlà © Malaysia can apply one of the forms of paid advertising models such as Pay-Per-Click (PPC). (Charlesworth, 2009). By using Pay-Per-Click advertising, Nestlà © Malaysia can place their advertisement in Google AdWords whereby Nestlà © Malaysia advertisement will appear in the search results of Google when people search on Google using one of its keywords. For instance, the keywords of good food, good life will immediately link Nestlà © site on top of the search engines. Nestlà © Malaysia will only have to pay to Google on performance when the users click on the advertisement of Nestlà © Malaysia. However, the keyword bid in Google also might be affected by the Clickthrough rate (CTR). The keyword bid of Google are depends on its quality score. If the previous ads of Nestlà © Malaysia had been attracting many clicks from the users, naturally this good track of record will gain more credit. This is a disadvantage for the first time advertisers as they will be penalized as they do not have record of history. (Charlesworth, 2009). With the increase number of information, people and time spend on Internet; Nestlà © Malaysia can easily promote its brand through online advertising. Besides, by using the Pay-Per-Click advertising, Nestlà © Malaysia can easily track the number of people who gets to know their advertisement and this can help them to trace the popularity of their brand in the Internet and also the effectiveness of their advertisement. Moreover, Nestlà © Malaysia also can advertise its brands on the blog and forum in the form of banner ads. For instance, the famous social media sites such as Blogger, Lowyat.net forum and etc. There is also community websites where Nestlà © Malaysia can post its ads as the content of the community websites is decided by the community members. (Charlesworth, 2009). In addition, online advertising also has greater range as compared to publications such as TV advertising which cater to a particular geographical area. As Internet can reach people around the world, Nestlà © Malaysia brand will be recognized globally and hence this can create business opportunity by bringing Nestlà © Malaysia out of the country. 3.7 Email Marketing Nestlà © Malaysia can specially create lists of consumers who agree to receive email to have the privileges to redeemed special rewards such as gift certificate from Nestlà © Malaysia to attract consumers to give them permission to email them on relevant news from Nestlà © Malaysia. This can attract more consumers to visit their website and at the same time brush up Nestlà © Malaysia brand name. Additionally, Nestlà © Malaysia can request the consumers email address and information used to registers a site when they make an online or offline purchase. By doing so, Nestlà © Malaysia actually can give online memberships to their customers who register to their websites and for every new registered customers will entitle extra discounts when make purchase on their products. This can help Nestlà © Malaysia to targets their consumers based on geography, age, income, spending powers and etc. Nestlà © Malaysia gets to build and maintain the relationship through a variety of communications such as newsletters, special offers or promotions to members, and customer services. With email marketing, Nestlà © Malaysia can transmit their email about the company products and services promotions instantly to the potential customers with literally just the click of a mouse and this factor already make email marketing strategy an extremely cost effective. In addition, as compared to offline normal postage, email advertising is faster and convenient. There are also no printing and postage charges required for email advertising. 4.0 Conclusion and Recommendation It is important to Nestlà © Malaysia to have a better understanding on how the e-marketing strategies will bring effects towards achieving the company objective of producing the best of Return on Investment. Applying the appropriate strategies based on the company needs will help the company to stay competitive and stand strong in the market. In order to be better and having more opportunities than the rivals, the e-marketing strategies that chosen by the company also must compatible with current fad of the market and be creative from others in the sense that it also should applicable to the company. (3310 words) 5.0 Harvard Referencing 5.1 Book Resources Charlesworth, A., 2009. Internet marketing: a practical approach. Slovenia: Butterworth-Heinemann. Strauss, J., El-Ansary, A. and Frost, R., 2006. E-marketing. 4th ed. United States of America: Pearson Prentice Hall. Turban, E., King, D., Viehland, D. and Lee, J., 2006. Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective. 4th ed., United States of America: Pearson Prentice Hall. 5.2 Electronic Resources Alexa Internet, 2010. Nestle Malaysia Berhad. [Online] Available at: http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/nestle.com.my# [Accessed 20 August 2010]. Alexa Internet, 2010. Unilever-static Version. [Online] Available at: http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/unilever.com.my [Accessed 20 August 2010]. Available at: http://www.crizfood.com/ [Accessed 15 August 2010]. ClickBank, 2010. [Online] Available at: http://www.clickbank.com/index.html [Accessed 16 August 2010]. Facebook ,2010. Press room: Statistics. [Online]. Available at: http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics [Accessed 18 August 2010]. Folio Snap, 2010. Twelve reasons not to have flash website. [Online] Available at: http://www.foliosnap.com/whynotflash.php [Accessed 10 August 2010]. Google AdSense. Maximize revenue from your online content. [Online] Available at: https://www.google.com/accounts/ServiceLogin?service=adsenserm=hidefpui=3nui=15alwf=trueltmpl=adsensepassive=truecontinue=https://www.google.com/adsense/gaiaauth2followup=https://www.google.com/adsense/gaiaauth2hl=en_US [Accessed 22 August 2010]. Google Adwords. Advertise your business on Google. [Online] Available at: https://www.google.com/accounts/ServiceLogin?service=adwordshl=en_USltmpl=adwordspassive=trueifr=falsealwf=truecontinue=https://adwords.google.com/um/gaiaauth%3Fapt%3DNone%26ugl%3Dtruegsessionid=dv6snIDEoVr750b7WVNf8g [Accessed 25 August 2010]. Internet World Stats, 2010. Internet Users in the World Distribution by World Regions 2010. [Online] (Updated 30 June 2010) Available at: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm [Accessed 9 August 2010]. Maggie, 2010. Lets masak-masak. [Online] Available at: http://www.maggi.com.my/ [Accessed 9 August 2010]. Murphy, J., Scharl, A., 2007. An investigation of global versus local online branding. International Marketing Review, [Online] 24(3), pp. 297-312. Available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1108/02651330710755302 [Accessed 8 August 2010]. Nestlà ©, 2010. Neslac excella gold. [Online] Available at: http://www.excellencebeginsyoung.com.my/ [Accessed 8 August 2010]. Nestlà ©, 2010. Nestlà © insights: Awards and Recognition. [Online] Available at: http://www.nestle.com.my/Nestle+Insights/Corporate+Information/awards.htm [Accessed 23 August 2010]. Nestlà ©, 2010. Nestlà © insights: Awards and Recognition. [Online] Available at: http://www.nestle.com.my/Nestle+Insights/Corporate+Information/awards.htm [Accessed 23 August 2010]. Nestlà ©, 2010. Nestlà © insights: Nestlà © in Malaysia. [Online] Available at: http://www.nestle.com.my/nestle+insights/corporate+information/nestleinmalaysia [Accessed 8 August 2010]. StatCounter Global Stats, 2010. Top 5 search engines in Asia from Jan 10 to Aug 10. [Online] Available at: http://gs.statcounter.com/#search_engine-as-monthly-201001-201008-bar [Accessed 21 August 2010]. TechCrunch, 2010. Costolo:Twitter now has 190 million users tweeting 64 million times a day. [Online] Available at: http://techcrunch.com/2010/06/08/twitter-190-million-users/ [Accessed 15 August 2010].

Alien Hand Syndrome: Causes and Effects

Alien Hand Syndrome: Causes and Effects Nia Helyar What is Alien Hand Syndrome and why does it occur? Discuss in relation to one or more case studies. Alien hand syndrome is an intermittent involuntary disorder whereby the hand acts of its ‘own free will’. However, alien hand syndrome is not consistently or precisely defined. Alien hand syndrome describes complex, goal-directed activity in one hand that is not voluntarily initiated by the individual but is well executed (Mark, 2007). This syndrome is an extremely puzzling phenomenon experienced by brain-damaged patients whereby their limb performs purposeful actions without the intention of the patient (Biran, et al., 2006). The patient is unable to explain the exact source of movement from the hand and may actually consider the hand to have a mind of its own (Mark, 2007). It is caused by lesions to the frontal lobes and corpus callosum (Banks et al., 1989) and generally follows acute focal cerebral injury. The most common causes are cerebral hemispheric stroke, severe brain damage or damage to the corpus callosum such as in surgery, which is used to treat severe epilepsy. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres, therefore surgery to this area of the brain can lead there to be less or no communication between the hemispheres which can lead to limbs acting of their own accord. Alien hand syndrome can also be seen in patients who suffer from a variety of degenerative, dementing cerebral disorders such as Alzheimer’s (Mark, 2007). Due to the numerous different causes of alien hand syndrome there are many variations of the condition. Therefore, it has been that alien hand syndrome is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of symptoms (Chokar et al., 2014). There have been reports of patients who were unable to stop their alien hand from grabbing and seizing nearby objects without any willing from their body (Kumral, 2001). This can be seen by the study of patient JC, a 56 year old man who had suffered from a left hemispheric stroke, with damage extending to the corpus callosum. Four weeks after his stroke he complained of peculiar uncontrolled movements of his hand. His hand would do things â€Å"as though it has a mind of its own† such as playing with light switches, grasping and holding things. In many situations the patient found themselves in the situation where the right hand opposed the left hand without the patient choosing to do so. Furthermore, the alien hand caused the patient difficulty in eating because of the opposing behaviour of the right and left hand (Biran, Giovannetti, Buxbaum, Chatterjee 2006). Often, a patient has to use their other willing hand to prise open their fingers and release the object which the alien hand has grasped (Kumral, 2001). Patients observe and experience their own limbs carrying out purposeful behaviours over which they have no or very little control. In one case it was noted that a patient had picked up a pencil and begun scribbling with the right hand. She indicated she had not initiated the action with the right arm, she experienced a feeling of dissociation from the actions of the right arm, stating that `it will not do what I want it to do’ (Goldberg et al.1981). This alien limb may disrupt movements of the other limb that is actually responding to the intentions of the patient (Akelaitis, 1944-45). Patients can experience their limbs acting without being guided by their own will (Bogen, 1993, fisher, 2000). Bogen, J. E. (1993) found his alien hand undoing the buttons of his shirt even as his â€Å"healthy† limb tried to button the shirt. The errant limb is known to not even rest during sleep in some cases and patients with alien hand syndrome have woken up to find their alien limbs choking them (Banks et al, 1989). In one case the patient’s `left hand would tenaciously grope for and grasp any nearby object, pick and pull at her clothes, and even grasp her throat during sleep . . . . She slept with the arm tied to prevent nocturnal misbehaviour.’ However, she never denied that her hand belonged to her (Banks et al. 1989). This is an important part of this syndrome; that the patient does not deny responsibility for the han d or the behaviour that it carries out. Two types of behaviour are displayed with this syndrome, repetitive involuntary grasping and unilateral goal-directed limb behaviour. Patients clearly recognize that there is a discrepancy between what the hand is doing and their desired actions. The patients are upset by the actions of the hand and will often try to prevent it from moving by grasping it firmly with the other hand (Frith, 2000). MP was a patient who had an operation to repair a ruptured aneurysm of the anterior communication artery. Within two years she was unable to live independently with her family due to the way in which the alien hand syndrome was affecting her life (Sala, 1998). An alien hand sufferer can feel normal sensation in the hand, but believes that the hand, while still part of their body, behaves in a manner that is totally distinct from them. They feel that they have no control over the movements of their alien hand but that, instead, the hand has the capability of acting independent of their conscious control. Alien hands can perform complex acts such as removing clothing which can be seen from examples above. Sometimes the sufferer will not be aware of what the hand is doing until it is brought to his or her attention. Patients frequently report astonishment and frustration at these errant limbs. Overall, alien hand syndrome is difficult to explain as there are many different causes and symptoms that can be described as this condition. However, one symptom that is apparent throughout the many case studies is that the alien hand acts against the willing of the patient. The condition is extremely complex and even though many causes are symptoms are known there is still a lot to learn about it. Further research is therefore required. Word Count: 987 References Akelaitis, A. (1944–1945). Studies on the corpus callosum. IV. Diagonistic dyspraxia in epileptics following partial and complete section of the corpus callosum. American Journal of Psychiatry, 101, 594–599. Biran, I., Giovannetti, T., Buxbaum, L., Chatterjee, A. (2006). The alien hand syndrome: What makes the alien hand alien?.Cognitive Neuropsychology,23(4), 563-582. Chokar, G., Cerase, A., Gough, A., Hasan, S., Scullion, D., El-Sayeh, H., Buccoliero, R. (2014). A case of Parry–Romberg syndrome and alien hand.Journal of the neurological sciences,341(1), 153-157. Farrage, A. D. Alien hand syndrome. http://the-medical-dictionary.com/alien_hand_syndrome_article_5.htm Fisher, C. M. (2000). Alien hand phenomena: A review with the addition of six personal cases. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 27, 192–203. Frith, C. D., Wolpert, D. M. (2000). Abnormalities in the awareness and control of action.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,355(1404), 1771-1788. Goldberg, G., Mayer, N. H. Toglia, J. U. 1981 Medial frontal cortex and the alien hand sign. Arch. Neurol. 38, 683-686. Kumral, E. (2001). Compulsive grasping hand syndrome: A variant of anarchic hand. Neurology, 57, 2143–2144. Mark, V. W. (2007). Alien hand syndrome. InMedLink neurology(pp. 418-421). MedLink Corporation San Diego. Parkin, A. J. (1996). The alien hand.Methods in madness: case studies in cognitive neuropsychiatry, 173-183. Sala, C. M. S. D. (1998). Disentangling the alien and anarchic hand.Cognitive neuropsychiatry,3(3), 191-207. 1

Hills Like White Elephants Essay -- Hills Like White Elephants Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story â€Å"Hills Like White Elephants† is about a couple who discuss an abortion. The American in the story addresses it as a â€Å"simple operation,† (487) while Jig seems to feel it is the wrong choice. I feel the man is encouraging her to have the abortion done in his own selfish way.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I feel the American is being very selfish and thinking what a simple operation it would be. He tells Jig, â€Å"It’s really an awfully simple operation, Jig.† (487)†It’s not really an operation at all.† (487)How easy it would be for the American to have an opinion like this since he would never have to experience the pain. He doesn’t have to deal with any of the physical or emotional scares. He just keeps reassuring her that it will be a simple operation. He says, â€Å"I know you wouldn’t mind it, Jig. It’s really not anything. It’s just to let the air in.† Is this what other men have told him? Has he ever taken the time to talk with women who have had the â€Å"simple operation?† As a man it would be very easy to think it’s a simple operation, but is this the reassurance that women want and need from men when they are faced with this decision? The American says, â€Å"I’ll go with you and stay with you all the time. They just let the air in and then it’s all perfectly natural.† (487)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jig shows signs of regret as though the American is forcing her into this decision. I don’t feel that it is something that she wants to do. Ji...

Physics of Billiards :: physics sport sports pool billiards

Physics can be found anytime, anywhere. Billards is one game where the more you know about physics the better a player you will be. Some of the main physics principles in Billards are: Newton's Laws: 1st: An object in motion tends to stay in motion while an object at rest will stay at rest, unless acted upon by an outside force. 2nd: Force is proportional to mass times the acceleration. 3rd: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Conservation of Momentum: In an isolated system, (a system with no outside force acting upon it) then the total momentum will remain constant. Inertia: The tendency an object has to follow the same path all the time and not change its motion. Friction: Sliding Friction: the friction on an object while it is moving. Static Friction: Static Friction is the friction that acts on an object that is stationary. There are a few different techniques to striking the cue ball and each will give a different results. Center ball: When you hit center ball, the cue ball slides for a ways, and then rolls. Draw: Is achieved by hitting the cue ball below center. First the ball rotates backward. This rotation slows as the ball slides, and then the ball rolls forward as it does on other shots. The harder you shoot, the farther the ball will travel with this backward spin. And the lower you cue the ball, the farther the ball will travel with this backward spin. Follow: The opposite of draw is follow. This is achieved by hitting the cue ball above center. The cue ball then rotates forward. If the cue ball then hits another ball, it will roll forward after the collision. Stop shot: When the cue ball is very close to the object ball, this can be accomplished with center ball.

Conflict Management Styles Essay -- Business, Handling Conflicts

Conflict is known to be inseparable in all human interactions. In any organization, role differentiation acquires the different uses of conflict handling styles. Work direction, reward, supervision, discipline and performance review also involve the use of conflict handling styles. Organizational change and control is also viewed from a conflict perspective. In attempts to explain the nature or dynamics of a particular organizational phenomenon, conflict may be incorporated as a causal factor (Brown and Peterson, 1993). Our society is concerned with the issue on how the skills of leaders can be enriched so as to enable them to act with greater proficiency when their contributions are from dealing with and through people especially their subordinates. One way of looking into this issue is from the conflict perspectives. The attention to interpersonal relationships is due to our belief that sound leader-subordinate relationships are important and consistent with humanistic and cooperative work environment sought by contemporary leaders. It is also believed that positive interpersonal relationship at workplace is able to increase subordinates’ satisfaction with leader and subordinates with high levels of satisfaction are more likely to be committed to the organization (Brown and Peterson, 1993). Differences in the perception of conflict possess implication in its own right. This is due to leaders uses of conflict styles may be reinforced by subordinates’ responses or the leader may anticipate subordinates’ reaction to the use of conflict styles. It is worthwhile for the leader to be aware of the existence of multiple sources of conflict in work situations and how it promote subordinates’ job satisfaction sin... ...nd Kabanoff (1990) support these dimensions. Applying good management principles in building quality relationships with people will help to prevent or at least lessen conflict. In spite of the best efforts at prevention, conflict does arise. The secret is to learn to cope positively with conflict, and not to see it as an enemy to peace, but an opportunity for growth in relationships (Laue, 1981, and Blome, 1983). In the past, management theorist used the term conflict avoidance, but today this phrase is increasingly replaced with the phrase of conflict management. Conflict management recognizes that while conflict does have associated costs, it can also bring with it great benefits. It is for this reasons that today’s managers seek not to avoid, but to manage conflict within the organization (Nurmi and Darling, 1997; Su-Mei Lin, 2003).

Brene Brown – the Power of Vulnerability

1. Summarize the â€Å"Ted† talk: Brene Brown, Ph. D. , LMSW, a self-purported â€Å"shame-and-vulnerability expert†, is a research professor at the University of Houston, Graduate College of Social Work. Focusing the last ten years of her studies on the topics of vulnerability, courage, authenticity, and shame, Brene Brown’s work has been featured on PBS, CNN, NPR, and most notably TED.In her TED talk, she shares the findings of her lengthy qualitative research, a massive collection of interviews including a colorful rendition of her own personal struggles, on the idea of human connection which she states â€Å"fundamentally expanded her perception† and has â€Å"changed the way she lives, loves, works and parents†. Her touching account of her personal struggles with this research centers around her views of vulnerability, which Brown summarizes as our â€Å"ability to empathize, belong, and love†.Brown digs even deeper into her exploration of shame and vulnerability, and how they act as obstacles in one's pursuit of true happiness. Brown draws together her ideas in a concept she labels â€Å"Wholeheartedness†, and illustrates her theory on how to engage in our lives from a place of authenticity and worthiness. 2. Identify the assumptions made by the speaker: To summarize her concept of â€Å"Wholeheartedness†, Brown begins her talk on the topic of ‘Connection’. We are hardwired to connect with others, it’s what gives purpose and meaning to our lives† explains Brown, that in order to allow connection to happen, â€Å"we have to allow ourselves to be seen as we are, not presenting only the parts we think others will like†. During Brown’s research on connection, she elaborated on the idea that we often fear being disconnected from others, which she describes as the meaning of ‘shame’. We often feel shame and fear when we feel that we may become disconnect ed from others.Brown decided to take a one-year detour from her research to explore â€Å"shame† in depth, unexpectedly resulting in six long years of what she quotes as â€Å"the most important things she has ever learned in the decade of her research†. Brown discovered thru her interviews that there were two distinct groups of individuals with only one variable separating the two groups: a sense of ‘Worthiness’, which she defines as â€Å"a strong sense of love and belonging†. Brown explains that the one thing that keeps us from connection is the fear that we are not worthy of connection.While digging deeper into the minds of those individuals whom had a strong sense of worthiness, what she found in common was their sense of ‘Courage’. Brown reveals her participants â€Å"had the courage to be imperfect, the compassion to be kind to themselves first and then to others,† further stating â€Å"they had a connection as result of authenticity, they were willing to let go of who they thought they should be in order to be who they were,† which she theorizes you absolutely have to do in order for connection to happen.Moving on to the group of participants who struggled with worthiness, Brown stumbles on the concept of ‘vulnerability’, which she describes as the core of shame and fear, and why we struggle with vulnerability. Having to see her own therapist to sort out her ideas on vulnerability, she explains that to be seen lets us build that connection with others which often means that we may find ourselves â€Å"excruciatingly  vulnerable†. â€Å"We live in a vulnerable world† states Brown, and in order to cope with these emotions, we numb ourselves†.Brown theorizes that by numbing everything, we feel miserable and look for purpose and meaning, we feel vulnerable and then reach for something to ease our discomfort, a quick-fix, such as alcohol, drugs, or even food. Bro wn’s assumptions are summarized in her overall theory of ‘Wholeheartedness’: We must have the courage to allow ourselves to be seen even if it means we are vulnerable. To do so allows us to have compassion to connect with ourselves and others. 3. Describe any evidence given to support these assumptions. Brown explains that there is evidence of her theory of vulnerability. We are the most in-debt, obese, addicted and medicated adult cohort in US history† states Brown. She summarizes this evidence with the statements that â€Å"we make the uncertain – certain†. â€Å"There is no discourse explains Brown, no discussion, just a right or wrong answer†, which she compares to what we see in current day religion and politics. She goes on to further explain that we not only â€Å"perfect and blame†, but that we also â€Å"pretend† that what we do does not have an affect or impact on others, both in our personal lives and even the c orporate world.This is evident by such dealings as the BP Oil Spill, the recent bail-outs, recalls on retail products, etc. She draws the association of how common shame is using her own experiences, and how it contributes to our anxiety and unhappiness which all to many of us attempt to suppress with the use of medication , food, drugs or alcohol to suppress these unwanted feelings. 4. Are there points of view not considered by the speaker? Explain. Although Brown’s assumptions of human’s need for connection, our fears of shame and vulnerability are legitimate, these assumptions are based on â€Å"surfacey† feelings.Brown does not consider variables outside of our control, variables such as life experience stemming perhaps from early childhood or adolescence, witnessing or partaking in traumatic events, or any other life experience that effectively molds these feelings of unworthiness. Brown herself instructs her own therapist not to dig into her own family lif e, no â€Å"childhood sh*t†, she just wanted to touch on the subject of vulnerability so that she could â€Å"personally and professionally understand† what makes us â€Å"worthy† of connection without digging below the surface.Opening up pandora’s box would most certainly result in much grittier results. 5. State your position or perspective on the topic. I genuinely agreed with Brown’s talking points in her TED discussion, and I related to her own descriptions of her fallbacks of self-control, ie: the need to always be right or better, and her fear of shame. The manner in which Brown unfolded her findings of her dedicated research clearly illustrated her theories. Drawing together her conclusions in her concept of â€Å"wholeheartedness† was clever and purposeful.However, the subject matter was very generalized and did not reflect real-life experience as a cause of such feelings of unworthiness or vulnerability, although it was helpful in nature. I personally view the discussion more as â€Å"self-help† collection of ideas that you might find quoted in a calendar or collection of daily passages to motivate yourself that you are worthy of connection, to allow yourself to be vulnerable, to open up yourself without the hesitation of risk. 6. What are the implications or consequences of the speaker’s conclusions?Brown’s ideas are similar to what addicts are taught in rehabilitation-type settings. Addicts generally numb their feelings of unworthiness with substances such as drugs, alcohol, or food, or by actions or disruptive behaviors that allow them to release these feelings such as sex or pornography addicts and arsonists. However, once a traumatic event unfolds or an addict or even a non-addict experiences a trigger, or something that reminds them of their original feelings of unworthiness, individuals tend to fall back on their addictions or behaviors, relying even more on their numbing effects.I believe one can only tell themselves so much what they want to believe before they face what they feel to be the truth of themselves or how they view themselves. A consequence of Brown’s ideas to tell ourselves to love with our whole hearts, to allow ourselves be to be seen, and to believe we are enough, could potentially lead one to a false sense of self, an inflated idea of who they are. Generally, individuals feel unworthy for a reason, due to their upbringing or life experience. In a perfect world, Brown’s ideas would be enough to self-medicate our ill wills.

Ancient History: Cities of Vesuvius

Using Source A and B and your own knowledge, describe the main features of the economy in Pompeii. -The some of the main features of the economy in Pompeii consisted of: Trade, Commerce, Industry, Occupations, and Public Works. -Trade: Pompeii was the port for Nuceria and Nola, which made it the trading centre for mainly agricultural produce. There are suggestions for the size and nature of the port but this is determined on whether it was a sea port or a river port. Pompeii played an important role in the economy of the Campanian region. Commerce: There were plenty of shops in Pompeii, but the evidence to what was sold in them is very little, and archaeologists can hardly determine what was sold in them. Some shops that have been determine though are: a masons shops and a carpenters shop, both these shops were determined through paintings that had both masons and carpenters tools on it. Markets were important as well. The macellum which was located in the Forum and sold meat and fish. The forum featured a courtyard, a colonnade and a row of shops. The evidence that supports the macellum is fish bones and scales found in a drain beneath the forum structure. Although, not all shops or markets had permanent locations. Evidence from the praedia or estate of Julia Felix makes it clear that there were temporary stalls that sold goods such as shoes, or metal vessels. There were plenty of bars and inns in Pompeii and were mainly located on the main roads and near the gates. The many thermopolia (Source B) acted as bars, the dolia or large terracotta pots embedded in the counters of these shops are generally acknowledged as food or drink holders. Buildings identified as inns have been locate near the Nuceria Gate and the Forum. They consisted of courtyards and upper floor rooms. Industry: Industry played an important part in the economy of Pompeii. Agriculture, Wine and olive oil production were predominant. Pliny once stated ‘more skill was needed to produce olive oil than wine, because the same tree produces different kinds of oil’. The green olive was the olive that had the outstanding taste, and was used mainly for olive oil production. Most of the pressing of oil (Source A: Olive Press) was done in the rich estates, but some were found in Pompeian houses and the Forum granary. Generally presses had to be warmed with large fires, and Cato once stated â€Å"Pompeian presses built from lava stone were the best’. Once olive oil was pressed it was sold at the Oblitarium or oil markets. -Occupations: There is a large amount of evidence from Pompeii concerning the varied occupations of the population. Pompeii had a large community of artisans which included: artists, metalworkers, potters and glassblowers. There were tradesmen, wealthy merchants, manufacturers and service industries employing bakers, innkeepers, bath attendants and brothel keepers. Some evidence to support these occupations are the artworks from Pompeii that depicted cupids engaged in the various crafts and occupations of the townspeople.

New Ending to the Adventures Essay

My Ending Huck has to decide if he wants to be part of society or completely against it Huck has to choose if he wants to travel in Indian terrority or have a family and live with aunt sally. Jim is free and aunt sally offers him and his family a job to work around the farm Huck decided to stay with aunt sally Why I did what I did  Huckleberry Finn was a good book because twain was trying to make a huck an independent character who went against society’s unwritten rules (examples: did not want to be civilized helped a slave lied a lot etc) however I felt that huck s character development lacked in the end of the book. Huck never really had much of a family. Throughtout the novel he stayed at the hypocrctal ms Watson s place or his drunk father’s place I wanted huck to finally have a really good family to grow up in and be surrounded by people who love and care for him. He made a connection to jim and aunt sally and he didn’t want to let go of that. Chapter 43: a paid free slave, adventures or a home, yours truly, Huck Finn When I got Tom by myself, I asked him what purpose was had of the plan he made and why he never went ahead and warned me Jim was free in the first place. Tom replied by saying I hadn’t had no idea how to have a good time and I would have spoiled the whole thing by calling the plan unreasonable. I reckoned he was probably right but I didn’t admit it out loud. Aunt Sally was being awfully nice to Jim after she found out all the trouble he went though and how nice he treated Tom. He got all he wanted to eat and uncle Silas was so nice he offered Jim a job at the farm. Well I never did see a slave so joyful. He started babbling to me about how his hair ball was right and it predicted he be making some money. Tom he was heading back home and told me we ought to have another one these adventures soon. As for me I was planning on heading out to the Indian Territory for my next adventure. Yet Aunt Sally reckoned I’d stay with her. She wanted to adopt me and I weren’t so sure that I was against the idea. I wasn’t too fond of being civilized but Aunt Sally ain’t so bad and I shouldn’t be saying this but I’d miss that feller Jim. I think they care about me and I guess I care about them too. I figure I’ll try this thing out but I don’t guarantee I’ll be staying. I might be gone by t’morry. One thing for sure I won’t be writing no more. Writing this book was enough trouble I ain’t planning on doing it again. Yours truly Huck Finn.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier

Daniel Rutherford Jacobus Henricus Walther Hermann Nernst Reinhold Benesch & Ruth Erica Benesch Find How Oxygen is Transported in Human Body Frederick Soddy Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Louis Jacques Thenard discovers hydrogen peroxide Jbir ibn Hayyn Ya'qub Al-Kindi Paul Karrer Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Few things are as important as water, which we know is made of oxygen and hydrogen. Did you know that Antoine Lavoisier was the discoverer of both elements? Contributions to Science Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is one of the most important scientists in the history of chemistry.He discovered elements, formulated a basic law of chemistry and helped create the metric system. During his time, people believed that when an object burns, a mysterious substance called ‘phlogiston’ was released. This was called the ‘phlogiston theory’. Lavoisier’s experiments demonstrated the contrary, i. e. when something burned, it actually absorbed something from the air, ins tead of releasing anything. He later named the ‘something’ from the air as oxygen, when he found that it combined with other chemicals to form acid. (In Greek, ‘oxy’ means sharp, referring to the sharp taste of acids. Henry Cavendish had earlier isolated hydrogen, but he called it inflammable air. Lavoisier showed that this inflammable air burned to form a colourless liquid, which turned out to be water. The Greek word for water is ‘hydro’, so the air that burned to form water was hydrogen! Lavoisier was known for his painstaking attention to detail. Whenever he made a chemical reaction, he weighed all the substances carefully before and after the reaction. He discovered that in a chemical reaction, though substances may change their chemical nature, their total mass remains the same.This is called the law of conservation of mass. His love for accuracy led to the formulation of the metric system of weights and measures – which is still i n use today. Lavoisier’s attention to detail and habit of recording everything is perhaps his most important contribution – for that is now the way science is done. Biography Lavoiser was born on 26 August 1743 in a wealthy Parisian family. He studied at the College Mazarin from 1754 to 1761. His interest in chemistry was developed as he read the works of Etienne Condillac.In 1769, he set about making a geological map of France, which was important for that country’s industrial development. In 1769, he took a government position as a tax collector in the government of King Louis XVI. In 1771, he married Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze, who is considered as an eminent scientist in her own right. She translated the works of many scientists from English and German into French, and later on, with her husband, published the Traite elementaire de chimie, often considered the first comprehensive book on the subject.In 1789, King Louis XVI was overthrown in the French Revolu tion. As Lavoisier had been a tax collector, he earned the wrath of the revolutionaries, who executed him on 8 May 1794. SOURCE: http://humantouchofchemistry. com/antoinelaurent-de-lavoisier. htm Elements and Atoms: Chapter 3 Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794) has been called the founder of modern chemistry. (View a portrait of Mme. & M. Lavoisier by Jacque-Louis David at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Among his important contributions were the application of the balance and the principle of conservation of mass to chemistry, the explanation of combustion and respiration in terms of combination with oxygen rather than loss of phlogiston (See chapter 5. ), and a reform of chemical nomenclature. His Traite Elementaire de Chimie (1789), from which the present extract is taken in a contemporary translation, was a tremendously influential synthesis of his work. Lavoisier was a public servant as well as a scientist.Under the French monarchy, he was a member of the tax-collecting agency, the Ferme Generale. His work for the government included advocating rational agricultural methods and improving the manufacture of gunpowder. His service to France continued during the Revolution. He was an alternate deputy of the reconvened Estates-General in 1789, and from 1790 served on a commission charged with making weights and measures uniform across France. A Parisian by birth, Lavoisier also died in Paris, guillotined with other former members of the Ferme Generale during the Reign of Terror in May 1794.The preface to his Traite Elementaire de Chimie is a fitting selection to follow Boyle's The Sceptical Chymist because it includes the definition of element that was to dominate chemistry throughout the next century, and which is still familiar in our own day. In addition, Lavoisier's musings on the connection between science and the language which conveys its ideas remain thought-provoking, particularly in light of the writings of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Alfred Ayer in the first half of the 20th century.Even his comments about the pedagogy of introductory chemistry take sides in a debate that remains current. Antoine Lavoisier, Preface to Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. xiii-xxxvii When I began the following Work, my only object was to extend and explain more fully the Memoir which I read at the public meeting of the Academy of Science in the month of April 1787, on the necessity of reforming and completing the Nomenclature of Chemistry[1].While engaged in this employment, I perceived, better than I had ever done before, the justice of the following maxims of the Abbe de Condillac[2], in his System of Logic, and some other of his works. â€Å"We think only through the medium of words. –Languages are true analytical methods. –Algebra, which is adapted to its purpose in every species of expression, in the most simple, most exact, and best manner possible, is at the same time a language and an analytical method. –The art of reasoning is nothing more than a language well arranged. † Thus, while I thought myself employed only in forming a Nomenclature, and while I roposed to myself nothing more than to improve the chemical language, my work transformed itself by degrees, without my being able to prevent it, into a treatise upon the Elements of Chemistry. The impossibility of separating the nomenclature of a science from the science itself, is owing to this, that every branch of physical science must consist of three things; the series of facts which are the objects of the science, the ideas which represent these facts, and the words by which these ideas are expressed. Like three impressions of the same seal, the word ought to produce the idea, and the idea to be a picture of the fact.And, as ideas are preserved and communicated by means of words, it necessarily follows that we cannot improve the langua ge of any science without at the same time improving the science itself; neither can we, on the other hand, improve a science, without improving the language or nomenclature which belongs to it. However certain the facts of any science may be, and, however just the ideas we may have formed of these facts, we can only communicate false impressions to others, while we want words by which these may be properly expressed. 3] To those who will consider it with attention, the first part of this treatise will afford frequent proofs of the truth of the above observations. But as, in the conduct of my work, I have been obliged to observe an order of arrangement essentially differing from what has been adopted in any other chemical work yet published, it is proper that I should explain the motives which have led me to do so. It is a maxim universally admitted in geometry, and indeed in every branch of knowledge, that, in the progress of investigation, we should proceed from known facts to wha t is unknown.In early infancy, our ideas spring from our wants; the sensation of want excites the idea of the object by which it is to be gratified. In this manner, from a series of sensations, observations, and analyses, a successive train of ideas arises, so linked together, that an attentive observer may trace back to a certain point the order and connection of the whole sum of human knowledge. When we begin the study of any science, we are in a situation, respecting that science, similar to that of children; and the course by which we have to advance is precisely the same which Nature follows in the formation of their ideas.In a child, the idea is merely an effect produced by a sensation; and, in the same manner, in commencing the study of a physical science, we ought to form no idea but what is a necessary consequence, and immediate effect, of an experiment or observation. [4] Besides, he that enters upon the career of science, is in a less advantageous situation than a child w ho is acquiring his first ideas. To the child, Nature gives various means of rectifying any mistakes he may commit respecting the salutary or hurtful qualities of the objects which surround him.On every occasion his judgments are corrected by experience; want and pain are the necessary consequences arising from false judgment; gratification and pleasure are produced by judging aright. Under such masters, we cannot fail to become well informed; and we soon learn to reason justly, when want and pain are the necessary consequences of a contrary conduct. [5] In the study and practice of the sciences it is quite different; the false judgments we form neither affect our existence nor our welfare; and we are not forced by any physical necessity to correct them.Imagination, on the contrary, which is ever wandering beyond the bounds of truth, joined to self-love and that self-confidence we are so apt to indulge, prompt us to draw conclusions which are not immediately derived from facts; so t hat we become in some measure interested in deceiving ourselves. Hence it is by no means to be wondered, that, in the science of physics in general, men have often made suppositions, instead of forming conclusions.These suppositions, handed down from one age to another, acquire additional weight from the authorities by which they are supported, till at last they are received, even by men of genius, as fundamental truths. The only method of preventing such errors from taking place, and of correcting them when formed, is to restrain and simplify our reasoning as much as possible. This depends entirely upon ourselves, and the neglect of it is the only source of our mistakes. We must trust to nothing but facts: These are presented to us by Nature, and cannot deceive.We ought, in every instance, to submit our reasoning to the test of experiment, and never to search for truth but by the natural road of experiment and observation. Thus mathematicians obtain the solution of a problem by the mere arrangement of data, and by reducing their reasoning to such simple steps, to conclusions so very obvious, as never to lose sight of the evidence which guides them. [6] Thoroughly convinced of these truths, I have imposed upon myself, as a law, never to advance but from what is known to what is unknown; never to form any conclusion which is not an immediate consequence necessarily lowing from observation and experiment; and always to arrange the fact, and the conclusions which are drawn from them, in such an order as shall render it most easy for beginners in the study of chemistry thoroughly to understand them. Hence I have been obliged to depart from the usual order of courses of lectures and of treatises upon chemistry, which always assume the first principles of the science, as known, when the pupil or the reader should never be supposed to know them till they have been explained in subsequent lessons.In almost every instance, these begin by treating of the elements of mat ter, and by explaining the table of affinities[7], without considering, that, in so doing, they must bring the principal phenomena of chemistry into view at the very outset: They make use of terms which have not been defined, and suppose the science to be understood by the very persons they are only beginning to teach. 8] It ought likewise to be considered, that very little of chemistry can be learned in a first course, which is hardly sufficient to make the language of the science familiar to the ears, or the apparatus familiar to the eyes. It is almost impossible to become a chemist in less than three or four years of constant application. These inconveniencies are occasioned not so much by the nature of the subject, as by the method of teaching it; and, to avoid them, I was chiefly induced to adopt a new arrangement of chemistry, which appeared to me more consonant to the order of Nature.I acknowledge, however, that in thus endeavouring to avoid difficulties of one kind, I have f ound myself involved in others of a different species, some of which I have not been able to remove; but I am persuaded, that such as remain do not arise from the nature of the order I have adopted, but are rather consequences of the imperfection under which chemistry still labours.This science still has many chasms, which interrupt the series of facts, and often render it extremely difficult to reconcile them with each other: It has not, like the elements of geometry, the advantage of being a complete science, the parts of which are all closely connected together: Its actual progress, however, is so rapid, and the facts, under the modern doctrine, have assumed so happy an arrangement, that we have ground to hope, even in our own times, to see it approach near to the highest state of perfection of which it is susceptible. 9] The rigorous law from which I have never deviated, of forming no conclusions which are not fully warranted by experiment, and of never supplying the absence of facts, has prevented me from comprehending in this work the branch of chemistry which treats of affinities, although it is perhaps the best calculated of any part of chemistry for being reduced into a completely systematic body.Messrs Geoffroy, Gellert, Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, Kirwan,[10] and many others, have collected a number of particular facts upon this subject, which only wait for a proper arrangement; but the principal data are still wanting, or, at least, those we have are either not sufficiently defined, or not sufficiently proved, to become the foundation upon which to build so very important a branch of chemistry.This science of affinities, or elective attractions, holds the same place with regard to the other branches of chemistry, as the higher or transcendental geometry does with respect to the simpler and elementary part; and I thought it improper to involve those simple and plain elements, which I flatter myself the greatest part of my readers will easily under stand, in the obscurities and difficulties which still attend that other very useful and necessary branch of chemical science. Perhaps a sentiment of self-love may, without my perceiving it, have given additional force to these reflections.Mr de Morveau is at present engaged in publishing the article Affinity in the Methodical Encyclopedia; and I had more reasons than one to decline entering upon a work in which he is employed. It will, no doubt, be a matter of surprise, that in a treatise upon the elements of chemistry, there should be no chapter on the constituent and elementary parts of matter; but I shall take occasion, in this place, to remark, that the fondness for reducing all the bodies in nature to three or four elements, proceeds from a prejudice which has descended to us from the Greek Philosophers.The notion of four elements, which, by the variety of their proportions, compose all the known substances in nature, is a mere hypothesis, assumed long before the first princip les of experimental philosophy or of chemistry had any existence. In those days, without possessing facts, they framed systems; while we, who have collected facts, seem determined to reject them, when they do not agree with our prejudices.The authority of these fathers of human philosophy still carry great weight, and there is reason to fear that it will even bear hard upon generations yet to come. [11] It is very remarkable, that, notwithstanding of the number of philosophical chemists who have supported the doctrine of the four elements, there is not one who has not been led by the evidence of facts to admit a greater number of elements into their theory.The first chemists that wrote after the revival of letters, considered sulphur and salt as elementary substances entering into the composition of a great number of substances; hence, instead of four, they admitted the existence of six elements. Beccher assumes the existence of three kinds of earth, from the combination of which, i n different proportions, he supposed all the varieties of metallic substances to be produced. Stahl gave a new modification to this system; and succeeding chemists have taken the liberty to make or to imagine changes and additions of a similar nature.All these chemists were carried along by the influence of the genius of the age in which they lived, which contented itself with assertions without proofs; or, at least, often admitted as proofs the slightest degrees of probability, unsupported by that strictly rigorous analysis required by modern philosophy. [12] All that can be said upon the number and nature of elements is, in my opinion, confined to discussions entirely of a metaphysical nature. The subject only furnishes us with indefinite problems, which may be solved in a thousand different ways, not one of which, in all probability, is consistent with nature.I shall therefore only add upon this subject, that if, by the term elements, we mean to express those simple and indivisib le atoms of which matter is composed, it is extremely probable we know nothing at all about them; but, if we apply the term elements, or principles of bodies, to express our idea of the last point which analysis is capable of reaching, we must admit, as elements, all the substances into which we are capable, by any means, to reduce bodies by decomposition. 13] Not that we are entitled to affirm, that these substances we consider as simple may not be compounded of two, or even of a greater number of principles; but, since these principles cannot be separated, or rather since we have not hitherto discovered the means of separating them, they act with regard to us as simple substances, and we ought never to suppose them compounded until experiment and observation has proved them to be so. 14] The foregoing reflections upon the progress of chemical ideas naturally apply to the words by which these ideas are to be expressed. Guided by the work which, in the year 1787, Messrs de Morveau, Berthollet, de Fourcroy, and I composed upon the Nomenclature of Chemistry, I have endeavoured, as much as possible, to denominate simple bodies by simple terms, and I was naturally led to name these first. 15] It will be recollected, that we were obliged to retain that name of any substance by which it had been long known in the world, and that in two cases only we took the liberty of making alterations; first, in the case of those which were but newly discovered, and had not yet obtained names, or at least which had been known but for a short time, and the names of which had not yet received the sanction of the public; and, secondly, when the names which had been adopted, whether by the ancients or the moderns, appeared to us to express evidently false ideas, when they confounded the substances, to which they were applied, with others possessed of different, or perhaps opposite qualities. We made no scruple, in this case, of substituting other names in their room, and the greatest number of these were borrowed from the Greek language. We endeavoured to frame them in such a manner as to express the most general and the most characteristic quality of the substances; and this was attended with the additional advantage both of assisting the memory of beginners, who find it difficult to remember a new word which has no meaning, and of accustoming them early to admit no word without connecting with it some determinate idea. 16] To those bodies which are formed by the union of several simple substances we gave new names, compounded in such a manner as the nature of the substances directed; but, as the number of double combinations is already very considerable, the only method by which we could avoid confusion, was to divide them into classes. In the natural order of ideas, the name of the class or genus is that which expresses a quality common to a great number of individuals: The name of the species, on the contrary, expresses a quality peculiar to certain individ uals only. [17] These distinctions are not, as some may imagine, merely metaphysical, but are established by Nature. A child,† says the Abbe de Condillac, â€Å"is taught to give the name tree to the first one which is pointed out to him. The next one he sees presents the same idea, and he gives it the same name. This he does likewise to a third and a fourth, till at last the word tree, which he first applied to an individual, comes to be employed by him as the name of a class or a genus, an abstract idea, which comprehends all trees in general. But, when he learns that all trees serve not the same purpose, that they do not all produce the same kind of fruit, he will soon learn to distinguish them by specific and particular names. † This is the logic of all the sciences, and is naturally applied of chemistry.The acids, for example, are compounded of two substances, of the order of those which we consider as simple; the one constitutes acidity, and is common to all acids , and, from this substance, the name of the class or the genus ought to be taken; the other is peculiar to each acid, and distinguishes it from the rest, and from this substance is to be taken the name of the species. But, in the greatest number of acids, the two constituent elements, the acidifying principle, and that which it acidifies, may exist in different proportions, constituting all the possible points of equilibrium or of saturation. This is the case in the sulphuric and the sulphurous acids; and these two states of the same acid we have marked by varying the termination of the specific name. Metallic substances which have been exposed to the joint action of the air and of fire, lose their metallic lustre, increase in weight, and assume an earthy appearance.In this state, like the acids, they are compounded of a principle which is common to all, and one which is peculiar to each. In the same way, therefore, we have thought proper to class them under a generic name, derived from the common principle; for which purpose, we adopted the term oxyd; and we distinguish them from each other by the particular name of the metal to which each belongs. [18] Combustible substances, which in acids and metallic oxyds are a specific and particular principle, are capable of becoming, in their turn, common principles of a great number of substances. The sulphurous combinations have been long the only known ones in this kind.Now, however, we know, from the experiments of Messrs Vandermonde, Monge, and Berthollet, that charcoal may be combined with iron, and perhaps with several other metals; and that, from this combination, according to the proportions, may be produced steel, plumbago, &c. [19] We know likewise, from the experiments of M. Pelletier, that phosphorus may be combined with a great number of metallic substances. These different combinations we have classed under generic names taken from the common substance, with a termination which marks this analogy, speci fying them by another name taken from that substance which is proper to each. The nomenclature of bodies compounded of three simple substances was attended with still greater difficulty, not only on account of their number, but, particularly, because we cannot express the nature of their constituent principles without employing more compound names.In the bodies which form this class, such as the neutral salts, for instance, we had to consider, 1st, The acidifying principle, which is common to them all; 2d, The acidifiable principle which constitutes their peculiar acid; 3d, The saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which determines the particular species of salt. Here we derived the name of each class of salts from the name of the acidifiable principle common to all the individuals of that class; and distinguished each species by the name of the saline, earthy, or metallic basis, which is peculiar to it. [20] A salt, though compounded of the same three principles, may, nevertheless, by the mere difference of their proportion, be in three different states.The nomenclature we have adopted would have been defective, had it not expressed these different states; and this we attained chiefly by changes of termination uniformly applied to the same state of the different salts. In short, we have advanced so far, that from the name alone may be instantly found what the combustible substance is which enters into any combination; whether that combustible substance be combined with the acidifying principle, and in what proportion; what is the state of the acid; with what basis it is united; whether the saturation be exact, or whether the acid or the basis be in excess. It may be easily supposed that it was not possible to attain all these different objects without departing, in some instances, from established custom, and adopting terms which at first sight will appear uncouth and barbarous.But we considered that the ear is soon habituated to new words, especially when they are connected with a general and rational system. The names, besides, which were formerly employed, such as powder of algaroth, salt of alembroth, pompholix, phagadenic water, turbith mineral, colcothar, and many others, were neither less barbarous nor less uncommon. [21] It required a great deal of practice, and no small degree of memory, to recollect the substances to which they were applied, much more to recollect the genus of combination to which they belonged. The names of oil of tartar per deliquium, oil of vitriol, butter of arsenic and of antimony, flowers of zinc, &c. ere still more improper, because they suggested false ideas: For, in the whole mineral kingdom, and particularly in the metallic class, there exists no such thing as butters, oils, or flowers; and, in short, the substances to which they give these fallacious names, are nothing less than rank poisons. [22] When we published our essay on the nomenclature of chemistry, we were reproached for having changed the la nguage which was spoken by our masters, which they distinguished by their authority, and handed down to us. But those who reproach us on this account, have forgotten that it was Bergman and Macquer themselves who urged us to make this reformation. In a letter which the learned Professor of Upsal, M. Bergman, wrote, a short time before he died, to M. de Morveau, he bids him spare no improper names; those who are learned, will always be learned, and those who are ignorant will thus learn sooner. 23] There is an objection to the work which I am going to present to the public, which is perhaps better founded, that I have given no account of the opinion of those who have gone before me; that I have stated only my own opinion, without examining that of others. By this I have been prevented from doing that justice to my associates, and more especially to foreign chemists, which I wished to render them. But I beseech the reader to consider, that, if I had filled an elementary work with a mu ltitude of quotations; if I had allowed myself to enter into long dissertations on the history of the science, and the works of those who have studied it, I must have lost sight of the true object I had in view, and produced a work, the reading of which must have been extremely tiresome to beginners.It is not to the history of the science, or of the human mind, that we are to attend in an elementary treatise:[24] Our only aim ought to be ease and perspicuity, and with the utmost care to keep every thing out of view which might draw aside the attention of the student; it is a road which we should be continually rendering more smooth, and from which we should endeavour to remove every obstacle which can occasion delay. The sciences, from their own nature, present a sufficient number of difficulties, though we add not those which are foreign to them. But, besides this, chemists will easily perceive, that, in the fist part of my work, I make very little use of any experiments but those which were made by myself: If at any time I have adopted, without acknowledgment, the experiments or the opinions of M. Berthollet, M. Fourcroy, M. de la Place, M.Monge, or, in general, of any of those whose principles are the same with my own, it is owing to the circumstance, that frequent intercourse, and the habit of communicating our ideas, our observations, and our way of thinking to each other, has established between us a sort of community of opinions, in which it is often difficult for every one to know his own. [25] The remarks I have made on the order which I thought myself obliged to follow in the arrangement of proofs and ideas, are to be applied only to the first part of this work. It is the only one which contains the general sum of the doctrine I have adopted, and to which I wished to give a form completely elementary. 26] The second part is composed chiefly of tables of the nomenclature of the neutral salts. To these I have only added general explanations, the object of which was to point out the most simple processes for obtaining the different kinds of known acids. This part contains nothing which I can call my own, and presents only a very short abridgment of the results of these processes, extracted from the works of different authors. In the third part, I have given a description, in detail, of all the operations connected with modern chemistry. I have long thought that a work of this kind was much wanted, and I am convinced it will not be without use.The method of performing experiments, and particularly those of modern chemistry, is not so generally known as it ought to be; and had I, in the different memoirs which I have presented to the Academy, been more particular in the detail of the manipulations of my experiments, it is probable I should have made myself better understood, and the science might have made a more rapid progress. The order of the different matters contained in this third part appeared to me to be almost arbitrary; an d the only one I have observed was to class together, in each of the chapters of which it is composed, those operations which are most connected with one another. I need hardly mention that this part could not be borrowed from any other work, and that, in the principal articles it contains, I could not derive assistance from any thing but the experiments which I have made myself.I shall conclude this preface by transcribing, literally, some observations of the Abbe de Condillac, which I think describe, with a good deal of truth, the state of chemistry at a period not far distant from our own. These observations were made on a different subject; but they will not, on this account, have less force, if the application of them be thought just. [27] â€Å"Instead of applying observation to the things we wished to know, we have chosen rather to imagine them. Advancing from one ill founded supposition to another, we have at last bewildered ourselves amidst a multitude of errors. These err ors becoming prejudices, are, of course, adopted as principles, and we thus bewilder ourselves more and more. The method, too, by which we conduct our reasonings is as absurd; we abuse words which we do not understand, and call this the art of reasoning.When matters have been brought this length, when errors have been thus accumulated, there is but one remedy by which order can be restored to the faculty of thinking; this is, to forget all that we have learned, to trace back our ideas to their source, to follow the train in which they rise, and, as my Lord Bacon says, to frame the human understanding anew. â€Å"This remedy becomes the more difficult in proportion as we think ourselves more learned. Might it not be thought that works which treated of the sciences with the utmost perspicuity, with great precision and order, must be understood by every body? The fact is, those who have never studied any thing will understand them better than those who have studied a great deal, and e specially those who have written a great deal. At the end of the fifth chapter, the Abbe de Condillac adds: â€Å"But, after all, the sciences have made progress, because philosophers have applied themselves with more attention to observe, and have communicated to their language that precision and accuracy which they have employed in their observations: In correcting their language they reason better. † Antoine Lavoisier, Table of Simple Substances in Elements of Chemistry translation by Robert Kerr (Edinburgh, 1790), pp. 175-6 Simple substances belonging to all the kingdoms of nature, which may be considered as the elements of bodies. New Names. | Correspondent old Names. | Light[28]| Light. | Caloric| Heat. | | Principle or element of heat. | | Fire. Igneous fluid. | Matter of fire and of heat. | Oxygen[29]| Depholgisticated air. | | Empyreal air. | | Vital air, or | | Base of vital air. | Azote[30]| Phlogisticated air or gas. | | Mephitis, or its base. | Hydrogen[31]| Infl ammable air or gas, | | or the base of inflammable air. | Oxydable[32] and Acidifiable simple Substances not Metallic. New Names. | Correspondent old names. | Sulphur| The same names. | Phosphorus | | Charcoal | | Muriatic radical[33]| Still unknown. | Fluoric radical | | Boracic radical| | Oxydable and Acidifiable simple Metallic Bodies. New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Antimony| Regulus[34] of| Antimony. | Arsenic| † â€Å"| Arsenic |Bismuth| † â€Å"| Bismuth | Cobalt| † â€Å"| Cobalt | Copper| † â€Å"| Copper | Gold| † â€Å"| Gold | Iron| † â€Å"| Iron | Lead| † â€Å"| Lead | Manganese| † â€Å"| Manganese | Mercury| † â€Å"| Mercury | Molybdena[35]| † â€Å"| Molybdena | Nickel| † â€Å"| Nickel | Platina| † â€Å"| Platina | Silver| † â€Å"| Silver | Tin| † â€Å"| Tin | Tungstein[36]| † â€Å"| Tungstein | Zinc| † â€Å"| Zinc| Salifiable simple Earthy Substances[37] New Names. | Correspondent Old Names. | Lime| Chalk, calcareous earth. | | Quicklime. | Magnesia| Magnesia, base of Epsom salt. | | Calcined or caustic magnesia. | Barytes| Barytes, or heavy earth. | Argill| Clay, earth of alum. | Silex| Siliceous or vitrifiable earth. |Notes [1]Lavoisier read â€Å"Methode de Nomenclature Chimique† before the French Academy on 18 April 1787. This outline for a reformulation of chemical nomenclature was prepared by Lavoisier and three of his early converts to the oxygen theory of combustion, Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine Francois de Fourcroy. De Morveau had already argued for a reformed nomenclature, and he developed the April 1787 outline in a memoir read to the Academy on 2 May 1787. [Leicester & Klickstein 1952] [2]Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) was a French philosopher and associate of Rousseau, Diderot, and the Encyclopedists.His La Logique (1780) stressed the importance of language as a tool in scientific and logical reasoning. [3]Lavoisier makes an excellent point, but he overstates it. Clearly ones ideas are not strictly limited or determined by one's language. New ideas must exist before new terms can be coined to express those ideas; thus new ideas can be formed and even to some extent described under the sway of older language. Also, new terms can only be defined by reference to pre-existing terms. Sometimes new terms are not necessary, as old terms absorb new meanings. For example, I hope that the selections in this book show to some extent how the terms â€Å"atom† and â€Å"element† have changed in meaning over time.Having made these points, I do not wish to minimize the ability of new terminology to help the mind to run along the path of new insights, or to prevent it from falling into old misconceptions. [4]Note that Lavoisier does not say merely that we ought not believe any idea but what follows immediately and necessarily f rom experiment, we ought not even form the idea. This statement shows a wariness of hypotheses common to many early scientists and natural philosophers. Compare Newton's, â€Å"I frame no hypotheses; for †¦ hypotheses †¦ have no place in experimental philosophy. † [in Bartlett 1980] Hypotheses had no part in the empirical methodology of Francis Bacon (1561-1626; see portrait at National Portrait Gallery, London), which emphasized collection and classification of facts. This aversion to hypotheses is too not urprising if one considers that empiricists were attempting to distance themselves from rationalism. Later formulations of the scientific method, however, acknowledge the utility of hypotheses, always treated as provisional, in both suggesting experiments and interpreting them. [5]Lavoisier was not the last to observe that children are born scientists who learn by experience. [6]Lavoisier's choice of mathematics as an example may strike a modern reader as odd. Wh ile mathematics has long served as an example of the kind of certainty to which scientists aspire (â€Å"mathematical certainty†), it is now seen as based on axioms, not empirically based.Such mathematical systems as non-Euclidean geometry, which seemed to disagree with observed reality, had not yet been constructed at the time of Lavoisier's writing, though. [7]A table of affinities was a summary of a great deal of information on chemical reactions. It lists what substances react chemically with a given substance, often in order of the vigor or extent of the reaction. (If substance A reacted more strongly than substance B with a given material, then substance A was said to have a greater affinity than B for that material. ) View a table of affinities by Etienne-Francois Geoffroy (1672-1731). [8]In Lavoisier's mind, it makes no sense to jump to this summary table without first describing the various substances and their characteristic reactions.The proper role of descriptive chemistry in the chemical curriculum continues to be a topic of debate in chemical education. Apparently Lavoisier would be quite sympathetic to the charge that introductory courses emphasize unifying principles at the expense of descriptive chemistry. [9]This is certainly an optimistic statement! Two hundred years later chemistry has developed to an extent Lavoisier could not have imagined, yet it is a rare and foolish chemist who expects the science to exhaust its possibilities for discovery within a lifetime. [10]Bergman, Scheele, De Morveau, and Kirwan were all contemporaries of Lavoisier. The Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele had a hand in the discovery of oxygen, chlorine, and manganese.The Swedish chemist and mineralogist Torbern Bergman made contributions to analytical chemistry and the classification of minerals. Richard Kirwan was an Irish chemist and a defender of the phlogiston theory. [11]The influence of the ancients was on the decline when Lavoisier wrote these wor ds, but he does not exaggerate the importance of their thought. Remember that he is still concerned about their influence more than a century after The Sceptical Chymist and more than two millennia after the death of Aristotle. (See chapters 1 and 2. ) The simplicity of ancient ideas of matter would continue to have an influence on chemists well after Lavoisier's time, particularly as the number of chemical elements grew. (See chapter 10. [12]Johann Joachim Becher (1635-1682) and Georg Ernst Stahl (1660-1734) were the two men most closely associated with the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier was largely responsible for dislodging and discrediting the notion that combustion and respiration involved a loss of a subtle material called phlogiston. (See chapter 5. ) Lavoisier makes light of their ideas here, but the theory, though incorrect, was not as nonsensical as it may now appear. [13]Notice the pragmatism of Lavoisier's approach: he suggests, in essence, forgetting about the ultimate bu ilding blocks of matter. This was a prudent recommendation, for he had no way of addressing that subject empirically (which is why he dismisses it as metaphysical).He continues by suggesting that chemists turn their attention to what they can observe empirically, the ultimate products of chemical analysis. The definition of an element as a body which cannot be broken down further by chemical analysis is an operational one: as the techniques of chemical analysis improved, then substances scientists had any right to regard as elements could change. At first, this definition of element appears to be similar to that of Boyle. (See chapter 2, note 9. ) However, Boyle seemed not to consider elementary substances which were not components of all compound matter. [14]Lavoisier's table of simple bodies, reproduced below the preface, follows this prescription approximately, but not exactly. See note 33 below. ) [15]See note 34 below on names of metals. [16]Thus, where possible the name of a c hemical substance should not simply be an arbitrary word, but should give some information about the substance. This principle is particularly evident in the modern systematic nomenclature of organic compounds: the name enables one who knows the rules of nomenclature and some organic chemistry to draw the structural formula of a compound from its name. (See IUPAC 1979, 1993. ) The principle is also evident in the nomenclature of inorganic compounds [IUPAC 1971], the class of compounds Lavoisier's nomenclature primarily addresses. It is least vident in modern names of the elements, many of which are named after important scientists (e. g. curium, mendelevium, rutherfordium) or places important to the discoverers (e. g. polonium). (See Ringnes 1989 for etymology of elements' names. ) Ironically, Lavoisier coined the name for an element central to his contributions to chemistry, a name of Greek origin chosen to convey information about the element which turned out to be incorrect. The name â€Å"oxygen† means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed that oxygen was a component of all acids. [17]Already we see the close connection Lavoisier envisioned between the language of chemistry and the content of the science.The system of naming compounds depends on classifying those compounds. Compounds belonging to the same class would have similar names. The name would also reflect the chemical composition of the substance. [18]So the classes of compounds included acids, oxides, sulfides, and the like. To specify which acid, a particular name was added, e. g. nitrous acid. Different suffixes distinguished between similar particular names (such as sulfuric and sulfurous–the -ic suffix applying to the more highly oxidized form). [19]What Lavoisier has in mind is a class of materials now called carbides, inorganic compounds of a metal and carbon (â€Å"charcoal†). But the examples he gives are not carbides.Steel is an alloy (a mixture or soluti on of metals, and therefore not a chemical compound of definite proportions); in particular, steel is principally iron with some carbon and sometimes other metals (such as chromium or manganese). Although plumbago has been used to refer to a variety of lead-containing substances (as might be guessed from the root plumb-), it also (as here) refers to the substance now called graphite, the form of carbon commonly used for pencil â€Å"leads. † [20]Again in the case of salts we see the nomenclature embodying the principles of the chemical theory of the day. A salt was seen as a compound of an acid and a base, and an acid itself a compound of an acidifiable part and an acidifying part.The acidifying part, whatever its nature, was believed to be common to all acids; since it would not distinguish one salt from another, it does not appear in the name of the salt. The salts, then, carry the name of the acidifiable piece and the base with which it combines. [21]Pompholix was a crude (i. e. , not very pure) zinc oxide (ZnO), sometimes known by the more pleasant but hardly more informative name flowers of zinc. Phagadenic water was a corrosive liquid used to cleanse ulcers; phagadenic refers to a spreading or â€Å"eating† ulcer. Colcothar is a brownish-red mixture containing primarily ferric oxide (Fe2O3) with some calcium sulfate (CaSO4). [Oxford 1971] [22]Oil of vitriol is sulfuric acid, a viscous liquid.Butter of arsenic (arsenic trichloride) is an oily liquid; and butter of antimony (antimony trichloride) is a colorless deliquescent solid. In one sense, these names are informative, for they suggest the physical appearance of the substances they name; they are, however, also misleading in the sense Lavoisier points out. [23]Lavoisier recognizes that even the most rationally designed nomenclature would be useless if chemists chose not to use it. A language is one of the most visible signs of a people and culture; naturally, efforts to tamper with it can meet with disapproval. Thus Lavoisier pays at least nominal attention to aesthetic and cultural considerations, noting just above that the new terms sound no more â€Å"barbarous† than some technical terms then in existence.In a similar vein, he makes a concession to linguistic conservatism still further above, where he indicates that he does not propose to displace familiar names, at least for elements. And here he concedes that one ought not lightly to tamper with language, but that in doing so he is responding to a need and a demand. [24]Chemistry curricula in general devote little time to the history of the science, and that little usually consists of anecdotes scattered among other material. Discoverers of laws and elements may be mentioned; the pathways of discovery, however, let alone false steps on those pathways, almost never are. (See, however, Giunta 2001. In my opinion, the teaching of scientific process (as opposed to content) suffers as a result. The emphasis o n current content to the exclusion of historical material, however, itself has a long history and such distinguished advocates as Lavoisier. [25]The standards for crediting others for their ideas, particularly when they are similar to one's own, were not as stringent in Lavoisier's time as in our own. And yet Lavoisier was criticized even by contemporaries for failing to give what they believed to be sufficient credit. For instance, Joseph Priestley did not believe Lavoisier gave him sufficient credit for the discovery of â€Å"dephlogisticated air† (oxygen) when he described his own similar experiments [Conant 1957].And Lavoisier's failure to credit James Watt and Henry Cavendish for their insights into the compound nature of water were a part of the sometimes rancorous â€Å"water controversy† [Ihde 1964]. See chapters 4 and 6 for articles on these subjects. [26]The first part of the treatise deals with gases, caloric, and the combustion of elements, so it truly cont ains the work most closely associated with Lavoisier. [27]Indeed, these words, which advocate empirical observation over rationalism as the source of reliable knowledge, apply to any science. [28]Light and caloric are not found on modern tables of elements because they are even matter, let alone elements of material bodies.Although a wave theory of light had been proposed by this time (by Christiaan Huygens), Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory was widely accepted until the 19th century. Similarly, until the 19th century, heat was widely believed to be a material, a fluid which flowed out of hot bodies and into cold ones (even though mechanical theories of heat with a Newtonian pedigree also existed at this time). See chapter 5, note 17 for a description of Lavoisier's thinking about heat and fire. ) [29]As mentioned above, the name oxygen means â€Å"acid former,† for Lavoisier believed (incorrectly) that oxygen was a component of all acids. Oxygen was a relatively recent ly discovered substance, and it did not have a standard name.The various names used for it are descriptive, but clumsy. â€Å"Dephlogisticated air† is particularly objectionable, for it described oxygen in terms of the phlogistion theory, which Lavoisier was in the process discrediting. [30]The name azote and the current name nitrogen were both used in English from the time of Lavoisier into the 19th century. Azote means â€Å"lifeless,† for breathing nitrogen does not sustain life. [31]Hydrogen means â€Å"water former,† for water results from the burning of hydrogen. (See chapter 6. ) Hydrogen was one of several gases discovered in the 18th century. The names then in use for it were informative, denoting its flammability. [32]I. e. substances which can be oxidized (combined with oxygen). [33]These three radicals or â€Å"roots† had not yet been isolated or properly characterized. The fluoric radical, now called fluorine, is the root of fluorspar and oth er fluorine-containing minerals. Fluorine is very difficult to separate from its compounds, and is a very reactive and dangerous gas in its elemental form. This gas was not isolated until 1886. The boracic radical, now called boron, is the root of the mineral borax (Na2B4O7); boron was not isolated until 1808. [Weeks & Leicester, 1968] Muriatic acid was the name then in use for what we call hydrochloric acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl.Chlorine, the element which distinguishes this acid from others, was discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; however, he named it oxymuriatic acid, believing it to be a compound containing oxygen. Muriatic radical, then, was the name for the hypothetical element believed to be combined with oxygen in oxymuriatic acid. Muriatic, by the way, means â€Å"pertaining to †¦ brine or salt† [Oxford 1971]; the salt of muriatic acid is common table salt, sodium chloride (NaCl). Lavoisier had good reason to expect that these radicals would be isolated, for their compounds had been known for a long time; however, the fluoric and boracic radicals were, strictly speaking, hypothetical substances at this time, and the basis of muriatic acid had already been isolated but he did not recognize it as elementary.Had he kept strictly to the principle of considering a substance an element if it could not be further decomposed, then Lavoisier should also have included â€Å"oxymuriatic acid† (undoubtedly by a different name) among the elements; as it was, chlorine was named and recognized to be elementary only in 1810 [Davy 1810, 1811]. Although we can see, with hindsight, that Lavoisier was incorrect, it was by no means obvious at the time. Chlorine had been prepared from reactions with substances that do contain oxygen, for example from pyrolusite (MnO2) in Scheele's original isolation and from aqueous muriatic acid (HCl). [34]Until the phlogiston theory was discarded, metals were commonly regarded as compounds of their minerals ( "earths†) and phlogiston. This idea was incorrect, but it seemed to make sense, for the earths or ores seemed to be more fundamental than the metals.After all, the earths were found readily in nature, but to obtain the metals one had to heat the earths strongly in the presence of charcoal. In any event, the metal came to be known as the regulus of the mineral; for example, the name antimony was originally applied to an antimony sulfide, Sb2S3, and the metal was called regulus of antimony. Lavoisier drops the term regulus, giving the simple body (the metal) the simple, unmodified term. [35]The element is now known as molybdenum. Similarly Lavoisier's platina is now called platinum. The ending is important: the -um ending now denotes a metal, while the -a ending denotes an oxide of that metal. [36]Now tungsten. [37]All of these â€Å"earthy substances† proved to be compounds.Their elements were first isolated in the early 19th century. Of course, Lavoisier was justified i n including them among his elements, for none of them had yet been broken down into anything simpler. Two interesting omissions from this table are soda and potash, comounds of sodium and potassium known since antiquity but whose elementary metals had not yet been extracted. One might have expected Lavoisier to list such substances either here or with the hypothesized radicals (note 33). Chalk frequently refered to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), but apparently it was also used for calcium oxide [Oxford 1971]. Magnesia is magnesium oxide, MgO. (See note 35. Epsom salt is magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, so named for the location (an English town) of a mineral spring from which the salt was obtained. Barytes is barium oxide, BaO. Argill or argil is an aluminum-containing potters' clay. Alum is a transparent aluminum-containing mineral, AlK(SO4)2. 12H2O. Humphry Davy was the first to isolate calcium, magnesium, barium, [Davy 1808b] sodium, and potassium [Davy 1808a]; he was also a co-discoverer o f boron [Davy 1809] and he recognized chlorine to be an element (note 34). Vitrifiable means able to be made into glass; indeed, common glass is mainly silicon dioxide. [Weeks & Leicester 1968] Source: http://web. lemoyne. edu/~giunta/ea/lavprefann. html Antoine-Laurent LavoisierAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier. Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly. Courtesy Blocker History of Medicine Collections, Moody Medical Library, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas. The son of a wealthy Parisian lawyer, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) completed a law degree in accordance with family wishes. His real interest, however, was in science, which he pursued with passion while leading a full public life. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, mostly in geology, he was elected in 1768—at the early age of 25—to the Academy of Sciences, France’s most elite scientific society.In the same year he bought i nto the Ferme Generale, the private corporation that collected taxes for the Crown on a profit-and-loss basis. A few years later he married the daughter of another tax farmer, Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, who was not quite 14 at the time. Madame Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband’s scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists like Joseph Priestley and by studying art and engraving to illustrate Antoine-Laurent’s scientific experiments. In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the Royal Gunpowder and Saltpeter Administration and took up residence in the Paris Arsenal.There he equipped a fine laboratory, which attracted young chemists from all over Europe to learn about the â€Å"Chemical Revolution† then in progress. He meanwhile succeeded in producing more and better gunpowder by increasing the supply and ensuring the purity of the constituents—saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur, and charcoalà ¢â‚¬â€as well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder. Characteristic of Lavoisier’s chemistry was his systematic determination of the weights of reagents and products involved in chemical reactions, including the gaseous components, and his underlying belief that matter—identified by weight—would be conserved through any reaction (the law of conservation of mass).Among his contributions to chemistry associated with this method were the understanding of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air (as discovered by Priestley) that he named â€Å"oxygen,† and his definitive proof by composition and decomposition that water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. His giving new names to substances—most of which are still used today—was an important means of forwarding the Chemical Revolution, because these terms expressed the theory behind them. In the case of oxygen, from the Greek meaning â₠¬Å"acid-former,† Lavoisier expressed his theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered 33 substances as elements—by his definition, substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities.Ironically, considering his opposition to phlogiston (see Priestley), among these substances was caloric, the unweighable substance of heat, and possibly light, that caused other substances to expand when it was added to them. To propagate his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook, Traite Elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier conducts an experiment on human respiration in this drawing made by his wife, who depicted herself at the table on the far right. Courtesy Edgar Fahs Smith Memorial Collection, Department of Special Collections, University of Pennsylvania Library.A political and social liberal, Lavoisier took an ac tive part in the events leading to the French Revolution, and in its early years he drew up plans and reports advocating many reforms, including the establishment of the metric system of weights and measures. Despite his eminence and his services to science and France, he came under attack as a former farmer-general of taxes and was guillotined in 1794. A noted mathematician, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, remarked of this event, â€Å"It took them only an instant to cut off that head, and a hundred years may not produce another like it. † Source: http://www. chemheritage. org/discover/online-resources/chemistry-in-history/themes/early-chemistry-and-gases/lavoisier. aspx Others: http://preparatorychemistry. com/Bishop_nomenclature_help. htm